Prolactin is a protein hormone of the anterior pituitary gland that was originally named for its ability to promote lactation in response to the suckling stimulus of hungry young mammals. We now know that prolactin is not as simple as originally described. Indeed, chemically, prolactin appears in a multiplicity of posttranslational forms ranging from size variants to chemical modifications such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. It is not only synthesized in the pituitary gland, as originally described, but also within the central nervous system, the immune system, the uterus and its associated tissues of conception, and even the mammary gland itself. Moreover, its biological actions are not limited solely to reproduction because it has been shown to control a variety of behaviors and even play a role in homeostasis. Prolactin-releasing stimuli not only include the nursing stimulus, but light, audition, olfaction, and stress can serve a stimulatory role. Finally, although it is well known that dopamine of hypothalamic origin provides inhibitory control over the secretion of prolactin, other factors within the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral organs have been shown to inhibit or stimulate prolactin secretion as well. It is the purpose of this review to provide a comprehensive survey of our current understanding of prolactin's function and its regulation and to expose some of the controversies still existing.

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Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion

▪Purpose:To critically review the risks and benefits of hormone therapy for asymptomatic postmenopausal women who are considering long-term hormone therapy to prevent disease or to prolong...

Hormone Therapy To Prevent Disease and Prolong Life in Postmenopausal Women

studydesign,size,duration: This guideline was produced by a group of experts in the field using the methodology of the Manual for ESHRE Guideline Development, including a thorough systematic search of the literature, quality assessment of the included papers up to January 2012 and consensus within the guideline group on all recommendations. To ensure input from women with endometriosis, a patient representative was part of the guideline development group. In addition, patient and additional clinical input was collected during the scoping and review phase of the guideline.

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ESHRE guideline: management of women with endometriosis

Endometriosis

I. Introduction IN THE adult ovary, folliculogenesis starts when follicles leave the pool of resting follicles (RF) to enter the growth phase. From there, the early growing follicle undergoes a developmental process including a dramatic course of cellular proliferation and differentiation. In primates, only one follicle commonly reaches the preovulatory stage every cycle; most follicles fail to complete this maturation scheme, dying in the process termed atresia. In recent years, a picture has emerged depicting the classic endocrine control of ovarian function by LH and FSH, entangled in a maze of regulatory systems hinging on cell-cell interactions between follicular cells, via action of a variety of molecules (1–3). Different types of cell-cell interactions have been described. In paracrine regulations, a molecule synthesized by one cellular type is released into the interstitial milieu to act directly on another cellular type. In autocrine regulations, molecules synthesized by one cellular type are rel...

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Regulation of ovarian follicular development in primates: facts and hypotheses.

OBJECTIVE : Vaginal progesterone suppositories are an accepted treatment for infertility attributed to luteal phase defects. Although oral micronized progesterone may be preferable to suppositories for many patients, there are no studies on its use for patients with luteal phase defects. This study evaluated the efficacy of oral micronized progesterone for the treatment of luteal phase defects. STUDY DESIGN : Seven women with luteai phase defects previousily corrected by vaginal suppositories were administered oral micronize progesterone (200 mg by mouth three times a day). Endometrial biopsies were performed to evaluate treatment efficacy. Questionnaires were used to assess side effects, including sedation. RESUITS : On oral micronized progesterone, all patients had in-phase endometrial biopsies. Despite complaints of drowsiness, the majority of patients preferred the oral formulation over the vaginal route of administration. CONCLUSION : We conclude that oral micronized progesterone is efficacious in the treatment of luteal phase defects. (J Reprod Med 1995 ;40 :521-524)

Efficacy of oral micronized progesterone in the treatment of luteal phase defects.

The effects of 1,2-propanediol (PROH) on embryonic development, membrane integrity and metabolism on B6D2F1 mouse zygotes in the pronuclear stage were evaluated. In both the control and the group treated with 1.5 M PROH, 78% of the zygotes developed into 2-cell embryos. With 3 M PROH, the proportion of 2-cell embryos was only 7% (P less than 0.05). In a second series of experiments, pronuclear mouse eggs were incubated in either fluorescein diacetate (FDA) or 5 microM Acridine Orange (AO) then transferred to PROH. FDA-induced fluorescence, which is maintained until the cell membrane is damaged, was retained in 100% of the control and 98% of the zygotes treated with 1.5 M PROH. Exposure to 3.0 and 6.0 M PROH reduced the percentage of zygotes with FDA-induced fluorescence to 81% (P less than 0.05) and 5% (P less than 0.05) respectively. AO fluoresces yellow-green within the physiological pH range (7.4). After AO exposure, 95% of the control zygotes and 95% of the zygotes exposed to 1.5 M PROH possessed yellow-green fluorescence, indicating a normal cellular pH. Treatment with 3.0 and 6.0 M PROH caused a shift in the fluorescence such that 93% (P less than 0.05) and 100% (P less than 0.05) of the zygotes respectively no longer fluoresced yellow-green, indicating a lower pH. These results demonstrate that a 20-min exposure to 1.5 M PROH does not affect embryonic development, while PROH at greater than or equal to 3.0 M inhibits embryonic development.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Propanediol-induced alterations in membrane integrity, metabolism and developmental potential of mouse zygotes

Stimulatory activity of serum on prolactin production by human decidua

Since serosal drying and tissue abrasion play an important role in adhesion formation, we tested the hypothesis that the peritoneal instillation of 32% high-molecular-weight dextran 70 (H) before, rather than after, a surgical procedure results in less postoperative adhesion formation and reformation. Twenty rabbits were subjected to a standardized surgical injury on one ovary, the ipsilateral uterine horn and adjacent parietal peritoneum. Three weeks later the animals underwent a second laparotomy to blindly score the adhesions and subsequently lyse them using microsurgical techniques. The animals were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups, with H administered either before or at the end of each surgical procedure. Three weeks after the second surgical procedure, the animals were killed to blindly score adhesions. There was no difference in the mean adhesion scores between the two groups after either the first (2.0 versus 2.9, NS) or second surgical procedure (5.5 versus 5.1, NS). Thus, we conclude that preoperative instillation of H does not offer any advantage over postoperative instillation in the prevention of either adhesion formation or reformation.

Anthony A. Luciano

Papers

Efficacy of oral micronized progesterone in the treatment of luteal phase defects.

Propanediol-induced alterations in membrane integrity, metabolism and developmental potential of mouse zygotes

Stimulatory activity of serum on prolactin production by human decidua

Preoperative versus postoperative dextran 70 for preventing adhesion formation

Ovarian function after incision of the ovary by scalpel, CO2 laser, and microelectrode.