In recent years, GaN nanorods are emerging as a very promising novel route toward devices for nano-optoelectronics and nano-photonics. In particular, core-shell light emitting devices are thought to be a breakthrough development in solid state lighting, nanorod based LEDs have many potential advantages as compared to their 2 D thin film counterparts. In this paper, we review the recent developments of GaN nanorod growth, characterization, and related device applications based on GaN nanorods. The initial work on GaN nanorod growth focused on catalyst-assisted and catalyst-free statistical growth. The growth condition and growth mechanisms were extensively investigated and discussed. Doping of GaN nanorods, especially p-doping, was found to significantly influence the morphology of GaN nanorods. The large surface of 3 D GaN nanorods induces new optical and electrical properties, which normally can be neglected in layered structures. Recently, more controlled selective area growth of GaN nanorods was realized using patterned substrates both by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) and by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Advanced structures, for example, photonic crystals and DBRs are meanwhile integrated in GaN nanorod structures. Based on the work of growth and characterization of GaN nanorods, GaN nanoLEDs were reported by several groups with different growth and processing methods. Core/shell nanoLED structures were also demonstrated, which could be potentially useful for future high efficient LED structures. In this paper, we will discuss recent developments in GaN nanorod technology, focusing on the potential advantages, but also discussing problems and open questions, which may impose obstacles during the future development of a GaN nanorod based LED technology.

GaN based nanorods for solid state lighting

Interferometric lithography (IL) is a powerful technique for the definition of large-area, nanometer-scale, periodically patterned structures. Patterns are recorded in a light-sensitive medium, such as a photoresist, that responds nonlinearly to the intensity distribution associated with the interference of two or more coherent beams of light. The photoresist patterns produced with IL are a platform for further fabrication of nanostructures and growth of functional materials and are building blocks for devices. This article provides a brief review of IL technologies and focuses on various applications for nanostructures and functional materials based on IL including directed self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles, nanophotonics, semiconductor materials growth, and nanofluidic devices. Perspectives on future directions for IL and emerging applications in other fields are presented.

Nanostructures and Functional Materials Fabricated by Interferometric Lithography

Doping problems in GaN and in AlGaN alloys are addressed on the basis of state-of-the-art first-principles calculations. For n-type doping we find that nitrogen vacancies are too high in energy to be incorporated during growth, but silicon and oxygen readily form donors. The properties of oxygen, including DX-center formation, support it as the main cause of unintentional n-type conductivity. For p-type doping we find that the solubility of Mg is the main factor limiting the hole concentration in GaN. We discuss the beneficial effects of hydrogen during acceptor doping. Compensation of acceptors by nitrogen vacancies may occur, becoming increasingly severe as x increases in Al_x Ga_(1-x)N alloys.

https://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/9810385.pdf

Theory of Doping and Defects in III-V Nitrides

III-Nitride nanowire optoelectronics

Efficient light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic energy-harvesting devices are expected to play an important role in the continued efforts towards sustainable global power consumption. Semiconductor nanowires are promising candidates as the active components of both light-emitting diodes and photovoltaic cells, primarily due to the added freedom in device design offered by the nanowire geometry. However, for nanowire-based components to move past the proof-of-concept stage and be implemented in production-grade devices, it is necessary to precisely quantify and control fundamental material properties such as doping and carrier mobility. Unfortunately, the nanoscale geometry that makes nanowires interesting for applications also makes them inherently difficult to characterize. Here, we report a method to carry out Hall measurements on single core-shell nanowires. Our technique allows spatially resolved and quantitative determination of the carrier concentration and mobility of the nanowire shell. As Hall measurements have previously been completely unavailable for nanowires, the experimental platform presented here should facilitate the implementation of nanowires in advanced practical devices.

/pdf/spatially-resolved-hall-effect-measurement-in-a-single-54rk9o0cwz.pdf

Spatially resolved Hall effect measurement in a single semiconductor nanowire

This study describes the elimination of threading dislocations (TDs) in GaN nanostructures. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (XTEM) analysis reveals that the nominal [0001] line direction of a TD changes when it enters a GaN nanostructure and the dislocation then terminates at a sidewall facet. It is suggested that the driving force for this process is the reduction of dislocation line energy, and for a pure-edge dislocation, this TD elimination process can be accomplished simply by dislocation climb. This mechanism is active whenever a threading defect is in close proximity to a surface. Preliminary XTEM analysis of defects in AlGaN and InGaN core–shell growth onto GaN nanostructures is also shown. Although more work is required to improve the quality of core–shell InGaN epitaxial growth, nanostructures appear to offer a route to defect-free, nonpolar GaN-based devices.

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0884291411001129

Threading defect elimination in GaN nanowires

GaN optoelectronic devices based on nanowires offer potential advantages that merit further investigation for applications in solid-state lighting and displays. Reported is the operation GaN nanowire, light-emitting diodes that are based on a uniform and scalable nanowire process. For light-emitting diodes consisting of approximately 300 nanowire pn homojunctions, operating in parallel, the electroluminescence intensity was found to grow superlinearly with current. For individual nanowire light-emitting diodes the forward and reverse leakage current was<1 pA. The low leakage current of individual light-emitting nanowire diodes indicates that surface effects do not dominate the electrical behaviour of these LEDs.

GaN nanowire light emitting diodes based on templated and scalable nanowire growth

In this work, we demonstrate high-performance electrically injected GaN/InGaN core-shell nanowire-based LEDs grown using selective-area epitaxy and characterize their electro-optical properties. To assess the quality of the quantum wells, we measure the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) using conventional low temperature/room temperature integrated photoluminescence. The quantum wells show a peak IQE of 62%, which is among the highest reported values for nanostructure-based LEDs. Time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) is also used to study the carrier dynamics and response times of the LEDs. TRPL measurements yield carrier lifetimes in the range of 1–2 ns at high excitation powers. To examine the electrical performance of the LEDs, current density–voltage (J-V) and light-current density-voltage (L-J-V) characteristics are measured. We also estimate the peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) to be 8.3% from a single side of the chip with no packaging. The LEDs have a turn-on voltage of 2.9 V and low series resistance. Based on FDTD simulations, the LEDs exhibit a relatively directional far-field emission pattern in the range of $$\pm $$
 15°. This work demonstrates that it is feasible for electrically injected nanowire-based LEDs to achieve the performance levels needed for a variety of optical device applications.

/pdf/carrier-dynamics-and-electro-optical-characterization-of-55hjvdmxh1.pdf

Carrier Dynamics and Electro-Optical Characterization of High-Performance GaN/InGaN Core-Shell Nanowire Light-Emitting Diodes.

We demonstrate a high-speed nonpolar ${m}$ -plane InGaN/GaN micro-scale light-emitting diode (LED) with a record electrical −3 dB modulation bandwidth of 1.5 GHz at a current density of 1 kA/cm2. A differential carrier lifetime (DLT) of 200 ps at 1 kA/cm2 was extracted using a rate-equation model. The short DLT is attributed to the high electron–hole wave function overlap in polarization-free nonpolar InGaN/GaN quantum wells, which leads to a higher spontaneous emission rate at low current densities compared to polar $c$ -plane quantum wells. LEDs with improved high-speed performance at low current densities will help to reduce power dissipation and increase efficiency in Gb/s visible-light communication systems.

Nonpolar ${m}$ -Plane InGaN/GaN Micro-Scale Light-Emitting Diode With 1.5 GHz Modulation Bandwidth

Free-standing nonpolar GaN substrates provide an excellent platform for the fabrication of high-speed blue and green light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which are attractive for visible-light communication, plastic optical fiber communication, and short-range under water optical communication. Nonpolar LEDs on free-standing GaN exhibit a large electron-hole wave function overlap, low extended defect density, and favorable thermal properties. Here, we demonstrate high-speed nonpolar InGaN/GaN LEDs with a peak emission wavelength between 455 and 465 nm on free-standing nonpolar GaN substrates. A large frequency modulation bandwidth of 524 MHz is demonstrated at a current density of 10 kA/cm
 2
.

Ashwin K. Rishinaramangalam

Papers

Threading defect elimination in GaN nanowires

GaN nanowire light emitting diodes based on templated and scalable nanowire growth

Carrier Dynamics and Electro-Optical Characterization of High-Performance GaN/InGaN Core-Shell Nanowire Light-Emitting Diodes.

Nonpolar ${m}$ -Plane InGaN/GaN Micro-Scale Light-Emitting Diode With 1.5 GHz Modulation Bandwidth

High-Speed Nonpolar InGaN/GaN LEDs for Visible-Light Communication