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Complex unloading behavior: Nature of the deformation and its consistent constitutive representation

Numerical failure analysis of a stretch-bending test on dual-phase steel sheets using a phenomenological fracture model

Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) are increasingly used in automotive industry due to their superior strength and substantial weight advantage. However, their compromised ductility gives rise to numerous manufacturing issues. One of them is the so-called ‘shear fracture’ often observed on tight radii during stamping processes. Since traditional approaches, such as the Forming Limit Diagram (FLD), are unable to predict this type of fractures, great efforts have been made to develop failure criteria that could predict shear fractures. In this paper, a recently developed Modified Mohr–Coulomb (MMC) ductile fracture criterion ( Bai and Wierzbicki, 2010 ) is adopted to analyze the failure behavior of a Dual Phase (DP) steel sheet during stretch-bending operations. The plasticity and ductile fracture of the present sheet are fully characterized by a Hill’48 orthotropic model and a MMC fracture model, respectively. Finite element models with three different element types (3D, shell and plane strain) were built for a Stretch Forming Simulator (SFS) test ( Shih and Shi, 2008 ), numerical simulations with four different R / t values (die radius normalized by sheet thickness) were performed. It has been shown that the 3D and shell element simulations can predict failure location/mode, the upper die load–displacement responses as well as wall stress and wrap angle at the onset of fracture for all R / t values with good accuracy. Furthermore, a series of parametric studies were conducted on the 3D element model, and the effect of tension level (clamping distance), tooling friction, mesh size and fracture locus on failure modes and load–displacement responses were investigated.

Comparison of the work-hardening of metallic sheets using tensile and shear strain paths

Correlation between microstructure, hardness and strength was investigated in heat affected zone (HAZ) of dissimilar welding joints of newly developed rotor steels in terms of both the traditional micro-hardness testing and the nanoindentation technique. Relationships between micro-hardness and nano-hardness were obtained for HAZ of welds, where the mechanical properties were microstructure dependent. Lath width of the tempered martensites was selected as the characteristic microstructure size for correlating the micro-hardness. The detailed strength distribution in HAZ and the correlation with the characteristic microstructure size were discussed. A good agreement was observed for the correlated strength and the experimental results in both weld metal (WM) and base metal (BM), and therefore gave us confidence for the application of the proposed relationship between the hardness and the mechanical properties in HAZ of the dissimilar weld.

Correlation between microstructure, hardness and strength in HAZ of dissimilar welds of rotor steels

Failure in sheared-edge stretching often limits the use of advanced high-strength steel sheets in automotive applications. The present study analyzes data in the literature from laboratory experiments on both the shearing process and the characteristics of sheared edges. Shearing produces a surface with regions of rollover, burnish, fracture, and burr. The effect of clearance and tensile strength on the shear face characteristics is quantified. Higher strength, lower ductility steels exhibit an increase in percent fracture region. The shearing process also creates a zone of deformation adjacent to the shear face called the shear-affected zone (SAZ). From an analysis of data in the literature, it is concluded that deformation in the SAZ is the dominant factor in controlling failure during sheared-edge stretching. The characteristics of the shear face are generally important for failures during sheared-edge stretching only as there is a correlation between the characteristics of the shear face and the characteristics of the SAZ. The effect of the shear burr on shear-edge stretching is also related to a correlation with the characteristics of the SAZ. In reviewing the literature, many shearing variables that could affect sheared-edge stretching limits are not identified or if identified, not quantified. It is likely that some of these variables could affect subsequent sheared-edge stretching limits.

Review of the Shearing Process for Sheet Steels and Its Effect on Sheared-Edge Stretching

Failure during sheared edge stretching of sheet steels is a serious concern, especially in advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) grades. The shearing process produces a shear face and a zone of deformation behind the shear face, which is the shear-affected zone (SAZ). A failure during sheared edge stretching depends on prior deformation in the sheet, the shearing process, and the subsequent strain path in the SAZ during stretching. Data from laboratory hole expansion tests and hole extrusion tests for multiple lots of fourteen grades of steel were analyzed. The forming limit curve (FLC), regression equations, measurement uncertainty calculations, and difference calculations were used in the analyses. From these analyses, an assessment of the primary factors that contribute to the fracture during sheared edge stretching was made. It was found that the forming limit strain with consideration of strain path in the SAZ is a major factor that contributes to the failure of a sheared edge during stretching. Although metallurgical factors are important, they appear to play a somewhat lesser role.

Failure During Sheared Edge Stretching

The Bauschinger behavior after a strain reversal was evaluated for samples with microstructures representative of production sheets for a low-carbon (LC) steel, a high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel, and a dual-phase (DP) steel. The microstructures were produced in the samples by laboratory hot rolling and heat treatment. Bauschinger tests were run at strain rates of 0.0001, 0.001, and 0.01 s−1, with tensile prestrains between 1 and 7 pct. After the reversal, the samples were strained 2 pct in compression. The Bauschinger effect is described by a Bauschinger effect parameter (BE), which is the difference between the steel strength at reversal and the 0.05 pct offset yield strength on the reversal, normalized by the steel strength at reversal. It is found that the Bauschinger effect is a continuous increasing function of the strength of the steel, provided the steel is prestrained at least 2.5 pct or beyond the yield point elongation. A single trend line describes the Bauschinger effect variation with steel strength, for all three steels in the present study and for an aluminum-killed drawing quality (AKDQ) steel from a previous investigation. No strain rate influence on the BE was found, due to the limited strain rate range and data uncertainty.

Effect of strain and strain rate on the bauschinger effect response of three different steels

The tempering parameter for evaluating softening of hot and warm forging die steels

The use of dual-phase steels has been limited in a number of applications, due to failure during sheared edge stretching. Previous investigations have studied the properties of dual-phase steels, especially regarding the mechanical properties of the individual phases or constituents, the strain partitioning to the microconstituents during loading, and the decohesion at the interface during loading. On the basis of the literature review, a hypothesis is developed in which failure in sheared edge stretching is the result of a sequence of events. Cracking first develops in the hard constituent, cracks grow in the interface between the hard constituent and ferrite, and relative movement of ferrite relative to the hard constituent increases the rate of cracking. In the present study, a single steel was heat treated to produce different amounts of hard constituent within the ferrite matrix in order to better understand the behavior of dual-phase steels during sheared edge stretching. The results of the study are consistent with the proposed hypothesis. It was found that in contrast to other studies, increased strength of the hard constituent retards crack initiation. Crack growth increased with increasing surface area of hard constituent–ferrite interfaces and increasing movement of ferrite relative to the hard constituent.

B. S. Levy

Papers

Review of the Shearing Process for Sheet Steels and Its Effect on Sheared-Edge Stretching

Failure During Sheared Edge Stretching

Effect of strain and strain rate on the bauschinger effect response of three different steels

The tempering parameter for evaluating softening of hot and warm forging die steels

Failure during Sheared Edge Stretching of Dual-Phase Steels