Population and the environment

Wildlife attacks on humans and economic losses often result in reduced support of local communities for wildlife conservation. Information on spatial and temporal patterns of such losses in the highly affected areas contribute in designing and implementing effective mitigation measures. We analyzed the loss of humans, livestock and property caused by wildlife during 1998 to 2016, using victim family’s reports to Chitwan National Park authorities and Buffer Zone User Committees. A total of 4,014 incidents were recorded including attacks on humans, livestock depredation, property damage and crop raiding caused by 12 wildlife species. In total >400,000 US dollar was paid to the victim families as a relief over the whole period. Most of the attacks on humans were caused by rhino, sloth bear, tiger, elephant, wild boar and leopard. A significantly higher number of conflict incidents caused by rhino and elephant were observed during full moon periods. An increase in the wildlife population did not coincide with an equal rise in conflict incidents reported. Underprivileged ethnic communities were attacked by wildlife more frequently than expected. Number of attacks on humans by carnivores and herbivores did not differ significantly. An insignificant decreasing trend of wildlife attacks on humans and livestock was observed with significant variation over the years. Tiger and leopard caused >90% of livestock depredation. Tigers killed both large (cattle and buffalo) and medium sized (goat, sheep, pig) livestock but leopard mostly killed medium sized livestock. Most (87%) of the livestock killing during 2012–2016 occurred within the stall but close (

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Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.

Can forest fragmentation and configuration work as indicators of human–wildlife conflict? Evidences from human death and injury by wildlife attacks in Nepal

Wildlife attacks on people in and around protected areas have
become one of the main challenges for wildlife management
authorities We assessed all correlates of wildlife attacks
during 2003–2013 in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park,
Nepal We used data from various sources (discussion with
stakeholders, field observations, questionnaire surveys)
Wildlife attacks were significantly correlated to factors such
as site, season and time, activity, gender and awareness
Moreover, 89% of recorded attacks occurred outside the Park
The number of attacks fluctuated widely and patterns of attacks
were significantly uneven across seasons and months Of the 87%
of attacks that occurred during the day, 87% occurred in the
morning Most victims were male and c 45% of attacks occurred
when people were collecting forest resources or working on
croplands Attacks were carried out predominantly by rhinoceros
Rhinoceros unicornis (38%), tigers Panthera tigris (21%), sloth
bears Melursus ursinus (18%), elephants Elephas maximus (9%)
and wild boar Sus scrofa (8%) The people attacked lived close
to the Park, depended on farming for their livelihoods, and had
little knowledge of animal behaviour Attacks can be mitigated
through proper management of habitats inside the Park and
raising awareness of wildlife behaviour among local people We
recommend establishing a participatory emergency rescue team to
deal with problematic animals in high-risk areas

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When, where and whom: assessing wildlife attacks on people in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

The modern history of protected area (PA) management in Nepal dates back to 1973 when the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973) was promulgated and Chitwan National Park was established. In the years immediately following these key events, protected area acts and regulations were strictly applied and the role of local people in managing natural resources was neglected. However with the passage of time, and with changes in the socio-political and economic characteristics of Nepal, management regimes have shifted towards a more liberal model which recognizes more clearly the contributions of people living and working within protected areas. Recently, landscape level conservation models including the designation of multiple use areas have been utilized in the development of management plans for protected areas in Nepal. Conservation agencies have attempted to tackle challenges such as land use conflict, poaching and smuggling of wildlife parts and illegal harvesting of highly valued medicinal herbs through regulation, but these efforts are not always successful. We recommend a holistic conflict resolution approach which recognizes and resolves the different needs of all stakeholders.

Shifting paradigms for Nepal’s protected areas: history, challenges and relationships

Human–wildlife conflict is a significant problem that often results in retaliatory killing of predators. Such conflict is particularly pronounced between humans and tigers Panthera tigris because of fatal attacks by tigers on humans. We investigated the incidence and perception of human–tiger conflict in the buffer zone of Bardia National Park, Nepal, by interviewing 273 local householders and 27 key persons (e.g. representatives of local communities, Park officials). Further information was compiled from the Park's archives. The annual loss of livestock attributable to tigers was 0.26 animals per household, amounting to an annual loss of 2% of livestock. Livestock predation rates were particularly high in areas with low abundance of natural prey. During 1994–2007 12 people were killed and a further four injured in tiger attacks. Nevertheless, local people generally had a positive attitude towards tiger conservation and were willing to tolerate some loss of livestock but not human casualties. This positive attitude indicates the potential for implementation of appropriate conservation measures and we propose mitigation strategies such as education, monetary compensation and monitoring of tigers.

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Human–tiger Panthera tigris conflict and its perception in Bardia National Park, Nepal

Successful conservation outcomes for the tiger (Panthera tigris) have been achieved in Nepalese protected areas. However, an unwelcome consequence of greater tiger numbers is the increased prevalence of human-tiger conflict (HTC), particularly in buffer zone areas adjacent to key tiger reserves, which are heavily utilised by farming communities. HTC events may manifest as attacks by tigers on livestock or people, or as people harming tigers. Since 1994, 12 and 99 fatal tiger attacks on people were reported in and near Bardia and Chitwan National Parks, respectively; and since 1979, 34 tigers from these Parks have been killed due to HTC. HTC presents major threats to local people and to the continuing success of tiger conservation programmes. Conservation authorities in Nepal are implementing innovative solutions to prevent and mitigate HTC. These include financial compensation for damage caused by tigers and locally based community projects and programmes focussed on changing livestock husbandry practises, raising awareness of tiger ecology among local residents and supporting families to reduce their reliance on park resources. While these approaches have been successful in mitigating HTC and its effects in Nepal, further developments and refinements are required. This paper provides a synthesis of published and unpublished reports of HTC, in order to demonstrate the magnitude of the problem faced in Nepal. A critical summary of current management practises adopted in two of Nepal’s key tiger reserves is intended to provide a tool for managers to target their efforts towards methods likely to achieve success.

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Managing human-tiger conflict: lessons from Bardia and Chitwan National Parks, Nepal

We interviewed 48 people from communities around Bardia National Park in Nepal, including ex-hunters and protected area management professionals. The purpose of the interviews was to understand the motivations for, and the nature of, illegal hunting of prey species of iconic predators—tigers and leopards—in the northern section of the park. Participants reported that hunting of prey species occurs mostly in spring and autumn and is less common during the summer. In the past, hunting was primarily for the purposes of obtaining meat for household consumption. Since the introduction of a road network in the region, opportunities to sell wild meat at ad hoc “highway markets” have developed. The purported medicinal properties of wild meat was also cited as a driver for illegal hunting. Guns (mostly made locally, by hand) and dogs were reported to be commonly used. Protected area managers indicated that illegal hunting problems in the study area are associated with a lack of presence of park authorities, remoteness and underdevelopment and poverty of the community. Our study suggested that skills development training for local community members might reduce dependency of local people on wild meat, for both household consumption and for income, thereby reducing illegal hunting.

Babu Ram Bhattarai

Papers

Human–tiger Panthera tigris conflict and its perception in Bardia National Park, Nepal

Shifting paradigms for Nepal’s protected areas: history, challenges and relationships

Managing human-tiger conflict: lessons from Bardia and Chitwan National Parks, Nepal

Illegal Hunting of Prey Species in the Northern Section of Bardia National Park, Nepal: Implications for Carnivore Conservation

Equitable sharing of benefits from tiger conservation: Beneficiaries' willingness to pay to offset the costs of tiger conservation.