Showing papers in "European Journal of Wildlife Research in 2019"

Fifty-year trends in UK hunting bags of birds and mammals, and calibrated estimation of national bag size, using GWCT’s National Gamebag Census

Abstract: The Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust’s National Gamebag Census (NGC) has been collecting voluntary bag returns from shoots across the UK since 1961. Methods similar to the ones used for bird census data are applied to NGC data to derive annual bag indices for the UK, assess temporal trends and evaluate changes in bags over 50, 25 and 12 years for 30 bird species and 15 mammal species, as well as for numbers released of four bird species. Total UK bags and numbers released in the 2004 and 2012 seasons are obtained by splitting up aggregate bags from two independent surveys (PACEC 2006, 2014) in relation to their NGC species composition. These are used to calibrate NGC species-specific bag indices and obtain estimates of total UK bags and numbers released for the 2016 season. Over 50 years, large changes have taken place in the bags and numbers released of some species whereas bags of others have remained approximately constant. This work contributes to pan-European efforts seeking a rational assessment of hunting effects within a policy combining conservation and the sustainable use of wildlife, in line with national and international legislation.

Habitat suitability vs landscape connectivity determining roadkill risk at a regional scale: a case study on European badger ( Meles meles )

Abstract: Collisions between wildlife and vehicles represent the main conflict between infrastructures and ecosystems. Road mortality is the largest single cause of death for many vertebrates, representing a growing phenomenon of remarkable dimension. Most studies in road ecology investigated spatial roadkill patterns, showing that roadkill probability is often higher near optimal habitat for a large amount of species. Landscape connectivity has been less often considered in roadkill research, and only few studies considered habitat suitability and landscape connectivity at the same time. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the relative importance of habitat suitability and landscape connectivity in determining roadkill risk for a habitat-generalist carnivore, namely, the Eurasian badger in the Abruzzo region (Central Italy). We collected occurrence data of living individuals from camera trapping and roadkill data of through a Citizen Science initiative. We used the occurrence data to produce a habitat suitability model (HSM) and a landscape connectivity model (LCM). Both HSM and LCM were then used as predictors in combination with road characteristics to fit a roadkill risk model. We found that landscape connectivity was more important than habitat suitability in determining roadkill risk for the Eurasian badger. Overall, the density of regional roads was the most important variable. Our finding highlighted how important is to consider landscape connectivity in planning mitigation measures aimed to preserve habitat-generalist species.

Railway ecology vs. road ecology: similarities and differences

Abstract: Railway ecology is an emerging discipline. In this review, we focus on what is known today regarding the impacts of railways on wildlife, and on the methods to identify, monitor, and mitigate these impacts. Wildlife-train collisions are the most often reported impact, although railway lines can also represent barriers to animal movement, bisecting populations or reducing wildlife access to resources. Little is known on the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation due to railways alone, or on their disturbance effects, including pollution (noise, chemical, light), and on the potential to provide habitat connectivity or surrogate habitats for native species in degraded landscapes. Molecular techniques are one of the most promising methods to study the impacts of railways, as genetic analyses are useful to identify both population sub-structuring, and to assess the potential restoration of functional connectivity by mitigation measures like wildlife passes, or to estimate effective population sizes. Field work is necessary to provide credible mortality rates, which, combined with computer simulations, can allow for estimations of the impact of mortality on population viability. Studies should ideally have Before-After-Control-Impact designs and be long-term. We need to improve mortality estimates, and to understand how impacts threaten population dynamics. We need to go from local-scale studies (e.g., animals use the underpasses) to landscape-scale (i.e., where to place these underpasses to maximize the connectivity at regional/populational levels). Finally, we need to expand our knowledge on less studied, less charismatic species, and to explore the potential environmental benefits of green practices on railway corridors.

Habitat suitability and connectivity for the brown bear (Ursus arctos) along the Iran-Iraq border

Abstract: Habitat loss leads to habitat fragmentation. Habitat connectivity, however, could mitigate effects of habitat fragmentation on wildlife populations. This study was carried out to assess habitat suitability and connectivity of a brown bear population located along the Iran-Iraq border in the Zagros Mountains, at the southernmost extreme of the species range. A total of 34 presences of brown bear and seven environmental variables were used for habitat modeling using MaxEnt, and connectivity among habitat patches was assessed by electrical-circuit methods using Circuitscape. Distance from villages, elevation, slope, and distance from roads were respectively the most important variables in habitat modeling of the brown bear in the study area. In total, 33 habitat patches were identified for the brown bear, which covered about 12% of the study area. Results of connectivity revealed high connectivity among habitat patches in the Iran section, whereas in the Iraq section, only low connectivity was observed in areas close to the Iran-Iraq border. Systematic monitoring is recommended to assess potential habitat patches and habitat connectivity of the brown bear in future research as a first step towards cooperative management efforts between wildlife managers of Iran and Iraq. Moreover, establishing a transboundary protected area is highly recommended along the Iran-Iraq border to provide safety and connectivity for the brown bear in this region and reduce the effect of the country border as a separating factor.

High levels of recent wolf × dog introgressive hybridization in agricultural landscapes of central Italy

Abstract: Representing a form of anthropogenic hybridization, wolf–dog interbreeding may potentially compromise the ecological and evolutionary traits of local wolf populations and corrode social tolerance towards wolves. However, estimates of the extent of wolf–dog hybridization in wolf populations are scarce, especially at a multi-pack scale and in human-dominated landscapes. Using non-invasive (n = 215) and invasive (n = 25) samples of wolf-like canids collected in the Province of Grosseto (central Italy, 2012–2014), we assessed the extent of wolf–dog hybridization based on multi-locus genotypes (16 and 49 loci for non-invasive and invasive samples, respectively) and Bayesian clustering techniques. Based on a total of 72 genotypes, the minimum proportion of admixed individuals in our sample was 30.6%, comprising 8 out of the 13 surveyed packs; however, by correcting for the proportion of admixed individuals undetected using the 16-loci compared with the 49-loci marker set (26.7%), we suspect the rate of recent admixture could be closer to 50%. While we did not detect any F1 hybrid, four admixed individuals had a non-negligible probability of being first-generation backcrosses, one of which likely derived from a backcross of a F1 hybrid into the dog population. Complementary genetic markers (i.e., Y-haplotype and K-locus) or anomalous morphological traits further indicated widespread occurrence of admixed individuals of older generations of backcross. This high level of admixture raises serious wolf conservation concerns and exemplifies the expected dynamics of wolf–dog hybridization if left unmanaged in human-dominated landscapes. The implications of our findings need to be urgently upscaled for the implementation of management interventions that cannot be procrastinated any longer at the regional and national scale.

Doubting dung: eDNA reveals high rates of misidentification in diverse European ungulate communities

Abstract: Pellet counts are widely used to monitor ungulates but rely on the assumption that pellets of different species are correctly identified in the field. Recent studies question this assumption using DNA barcoding techniques to check field identification rates. For Europe, which is undergoing a rapid shift towards more diverse ungulate assemblages, such an assessment is still missing. Using DNA barcoding on 3889 fecal samples from nine ungulate species in four European countries, we found average field misidentification rates varied from 0.6% for horse (Equus ferus) to 41.1% for roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Most identification errors occurred between similar-sized species from the same taxonomic family. For a subset of samples from Sweden, we looked at the effect of dung morphometry, observer experience, and season on species identification success. Dung morphometry clearly distinguished moose (Alces alces) but not red (Cervus elaphus), roe, and fallow deer (Dama dama). Experienced observers performed better than novices for red and fallow deer although still making significant identification errors (26% and 17% incorrectly identified). Identification success was higher during spring and winter ( $$ \overline{x} $$ = 86%) than summer and autumn ( $$ \overline{x} $$ = 74%). We question pellet counts as an accurate monitoring tool where similar-sized species coexist and monitoring relates to the whole community. For this increasingly common situation across Europe, DNA testing or camera traps may be a better alternative. Pellet counts remain useful where only few species with clearly different dung morphology coexist (e.g., moose and roe deer) or when focused on species with distinctive dung morphology (e.g., moose).

Road mitigation using tunnels and fences promotes site connectivity and population expansion for a protected amphibian

Abstract: Habitat loss and fragmentation due to urbanisation and road developments have substantial impacts on amphibian populations and road mitigation measures are increasingly used in order to reduce such risks. However, numerous important questions remain unanswered on the actual effectiveness of such ecological road mitigation projects. We used specially adapted time-lapse recording cameras and a custom image analysis script to monitor the amphibian usage and effectiveness of a multi-tunnel mitigation site in northern England over 4 years and used before-and-after pond survey data to evaluate the mitigation results from a population trend perspective. We monitored four amphibian species, including the European protected great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), the main target of amphibian road mitigation in the UK. Despite substantial evidence of mitigation rejection and U-turn movements inside the tunnels, overall, most amphibians entering tunnels successfully used them to move between the different parts of the site separated by the road. Road fences appeared effective for preventing amphibian road mortality and site connectivity was re-established via the wildlife passage system, with multiple new ponds across the road colonised by amphibians. Unlike frogs and toads, tunnel usage by newts was strongly autumn based, indicating that such systems are mainly suitable for supporting newt dispersal movements between breeding areas. The great crested newt population increased rapidly over the course of the monitoring period, suggesting that, together with habitat replacements and improvements, the road mitigation measures were effective at maintaining site connectivity and as a population conservation measure.

A review of chronic wasting disease in North America with implications for Europe

Abstract: Cervids are keystone species in ecosystems and are associated with enormous cultural and economic value. Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal prion disease spreading in North American cervid populations. The 2016 emergence of CWD in Europe makes it urgent to understand the basics of CWD and to assess the extent to which current CWD knowledge is transferable to Europe. CWD is difficult to detect in the early stages due to very low prevalence and slow growth rates. The negative population effect of CWD is mainly due to increased female adult mortality, as infected individuals continue to reproduce. It may take decades before CWD leads to population declines. The population dynamics of mule deer are affected more by CWD than those of white-tailed deer, which in turn are more affected than those of elk, and depending on other factors limiting the populations. Species- and population-specific differences in dynamical consequences are linked to the balance among the rates of transmission, incubation period (linked to the prion protein gene, PRNP), and reproductive rates. This make it difficult to predict effects of CWD in Europe with other cervids, but the dynamic impact may be marked to cervid populations over the long term. The process of spillover across the species barrier is not well understood. Occasional spillover to moose without an apparent epizootic suggests specific conditions can limit CWD. Frequency-dependent transmission or weak density–dependent transmission makes it difficult to control CWD using density reductions through harvest and/or culling. CWD is difficult to eradicate once it becomes endemic, and it calls for immediate management actions. These actions involve extensive culling, fencing, and ceasing of wildlife feeding and are likely to cause significant controversy.

People’s perceptions of elephant conservation and the human-elephant conflict in Aceh Jaya, Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract: Human-elephant conflict (HEC) poses a major threat to elephants in many parts of Asia, including Indonesia. This paper presents data from a case study on HEC in Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia. The area consists of a mosaic of settlements, agriculture, and forested areas that are used both by elephants and humans. Questionnaire survey data were used to examine villagers “attitudes towards elephant conservation”, “forest protection”, and “wildlife authorities”. While 36% of the respondents expressed a positive attitude and accepted the need to protect elephants, a majority of the respondents (64%) indicated that they would not support conservation where crop damage by wildlife, particularly elephants, was threatening livelihoods. Nevertheless, 86% of respondents had a positive view of protected forests, either for personal benefits such as hunting and collection of non-timber forest produce or to act as wildlife refuges. Although the wildlife management authorities respond to crop raiding incidences by elephants, which had some positive influence on perceptions of people towards the authorities, overall the majority of respondents (83%) perceived the wildlife authorities negatively and claimed that they did not provide support when crop raiding took place. The main factors identified as reasons for the observed conservation attitudes were proximity to forest boundary, occupation, and education level. Further education and conservation awareness programs, and conflict mitigation should become a priority to gain local communities’ support for conservation and change people’s attitudes towards elephant conservation so they can share resources with elephants, where possible.

Seasonal, geographical, and habitat effects on the diet of a recovering predator population: the European pine marten ( Martes martes ) in Ireland

Abstract: Human activity is increasingly altering the natural world. Yet the natural adaptability of most mammal species remains unknown. Seasonal and spatial influences on the diet of temperate carnivores tending towards omnivory are, particularly, poorly understood. The pine marten is one such species which in Ireland and Britain is of additional interest due to the recent recovery in its range and abundance from near collapse. We investigated diet of the pine marten on regional, national, and continental scales and with regard to seasonal and habitat variation. Habitat effects on diet were examined with regard to samples from deciduous woodland, coniferous forestry plantations, heath-coniferous matrices, and mixed habitats. Finally, we discuss the implications of dietary variation in the ecological role of the European pine marten in Ireland and elsewhere and consider how these may be affected by further environmental change. The diet of the pine marten differed significantly amongst all studies across its range, although it maintains the same approximate trophic niche breadth throughout. This plasticity may explain its recovery in an environment where resources are scarce, and underscores its status as an opportunistic species which is likely to be robust to environmental and habitat changes in the future.

Detection of selected pathogens in Apennine wolf (Canis lupus italicus) by a non-invasive GPS-based telemetry sampling of two packs from Majella National Park, Italy.

Abstract: In this study, a multi-pathogens survey was conducted to verify the sanitary status of two Italian wolf packs of Majella National Park. Twenty fecal samples (10/pack) were collected using a sampling protocol, based on the combining data from radio-collared wolves with geographic information system (GIS) analysis, allowing to mark off the home range of packs and to recover group-specific and high-quality specimens. Virological screening against the most prevalent canine viruses (protoparvovirus, distemper virus, adenoviruses, and coronaviruses) was carried out by molecular methods, while parasites were detected by means of copromicroscopic and molecular analysis. Canine parvovirus type 2b (CPV-2b) is the most prevalent virus in both packs (7/20), followed by canine adenovirus type 2 (CAdV-2), while no sequences of canine distemper virus and coronaviruses were detected. The sequence analysis of the viruses demonstrated the domestic origin of the infection, highlighting the importance of vaccination of local dogs in order to reduce the risk of exposure of wildlife to these pathogens. Fourteen samples resulted positive for parasites. Capillaria aerophila (sin. Eucoleus aerophilus), Ancylostoma/Uncinaria, Trichuris vulpis eggs, Sarcocystis spp., Cystoisospora canis, and Angiostrongylus vasorum larvae were identified. Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto (ovine genotype G1) and Giardia duodenalis(canid-specific Assemblage C) were also characterized, providing insights into the wolves’ diet and their effects on environmental contamination. The sampling protocol applied in this study, based on a multidisciplinary approach, represents an innovative tool for the survey of Apennine wolf, able to integrate sanitary data with the ecological and demographic features of this population.

An example of ecological traps for bats in the urban environment

Abstract: Urban environments have semi-natural features that attract some groups of wild animals such as bats, which belong to one of the most diverse groups of mammals remaining in cities. There are limited numbers of examples of ecological traps for bats in urban environments. We describe a case of high bat mortality in one concrete building (Kharkiv city, 50° 0′ N, 36° 15′ E Ukraine) where we found 157 carcasses of Nyctalus noctula killed by cats over the winter 2014–2015. We suppose that cats killed mainly healthy individuals with a higher ratio of females than in the total sample size. We are describing this case of bat mortality as an ecological trap. Moreover, we presume that the real number of bats killed by free-ranging cats could be higher, up to several hundreds per winter. In addition, it is a specific way for disease transfer that could affect public health. European bats are under special protection and in such cases, conservationist and animal welfare activists attempt to protect bat hibernation aggregations from any negative impacts.

Spatial interrelations between raccoons ( Procyon lotor ), red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ), and ground-nesting birds in a Special Protection Area of Germany

Abstract: In this study, we examine the spatial interrelation between different carnivore species (Carnivora, Mammalia) and ground-nesting birds in a Special Protection Area (SPA) in Brandenburg, Germany. Camera- and live-trapping of carnivores during an 18-month period revealed that the SPA hosts most mesocarnivore species that occur in Germany. Since raccoon (Procyon lotor), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and domestic cat (Felis silvestris f. catus) showed highest abundance-activity indices, we used GPS telemetry for a detailed analysis of spatial behavior of nine raccoons and five red foxes over a 22-month period. Spatial distribution patterns showed a strong difference between both species: raccoons showed a clear preference for reed swamps and shrub swamps, clustering in high concentrations along the edges of water bodies. Although this behavior is likely due to the high and year-round availability of aquatic food sources, overlap of raccoon core areas with high densities of wetland birds likely results in a high level of sublethal predation effects particularly on waterfowl breeding in reed beds. Red foxes showed much more evenly distributed movement patterns and a high intraspecific variability in habitat preference, revealing a general preference for woodlands and an avoidance of wetlands. Thus, predation pressure by foxes on ground-breeders seems to be lower and focusing on grassland-associated bird species in close proximity to woodlands. Consequently, our study highlights the need for a differentiated view on the predatory potential of particular mesocarnivore species on the endangered bird species in the SPA, leading to future management implications with a focus on swampland habitats.

Comparison of the efficacy of four drug combinations for immobilization of wild pigs

Abstract: Field immobilization of native or invasive wild pigs (Sus scrofa) is challenging. Drug combinations commonly used often result in unsatisfactory immobilization, poor recovery, and adverse side effects, leading to unsafe handling conditions for both animals and humans. We compared four chemical immobilization combinations, medetomidine–midazolam–butorphanol (MMB), butorphanol–azaperone–medetomidine (BAM™), nalbuphine–medetomidine–azaperone (NalMed-A), and tiletamine–zolazepam–xylazine (TZX), to determine which drug combinations might provide better chemical immobilization of wild pigs. We achieved adequate immobilization with no post-recovery morbidity with MMB. Adequate immobilization was achieved with BAM™; however, we observed post-recovery morbidity. Both MMB and BAM™ produced more optimal results relative to body temperature, recovery, and post-recovery morbidity and mortality compared to TZX. Adequate immobilization was not achieved with NalMed-A. Of the four drug combinations examined, we conclude that MMB performed most optimally for immobilization and recovery of wild pigs.

Free food for everyone: artificial feeding of brown bears provides food for many non-target species

Abstract: Artificial feeding of wildlife is a widely used tool for a range of conservation and management goals. While the effects of artificial feeding on target species have been studied rather extensively, little is known about its effects on non-target species. We used automatic video surveillance to monitor the vertebrate species using artificial feeding sites (n = 20) established primarily for brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. We also studied how type of artificial food (only plant-based food vs. mixed food including carrion) affects the species diversity and assemblage at the feeding sites. In total, we analyzed 117,566 recordings and identified 23 vertebrate taxa, including the brown bear, using the feeding sites. Brown bear, European badger (Meles meles), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) were the most frequently recorded species. Birds represented a substantial part (46%) of vertebrate community using the feeding sites, including species of a high conservation importance. Feeding sites were regularly used also by species for which intentional artificial feeding is forbidden in study area (e.g., roe deer Capreolus capreolus). Species diversity at the feeding sites was highest in spring while species composition varied both seasonally and according to the type of artificial food (with or without carrion). Our study indicates that artificial feeding affects numerous non-target species, which could have several ecological and management-relevant effects, including potentially undesired consequences. Artificial feeding of wildlife should be carefully planned and we provide recommendations on how to mitigate the side effects on non-target species.

Biodiversity hotspots for modeled habitat patches and corridors of species richness and threatened species of reptiles in central Iran

Abstract: In recent years, the distribution range of reptiles has greatly shrunk. Reptiles are sensitive to habitat degradation and fragmentation, and are thus ideal focal species for studies on habitat connectivity modeling. In this study, we conducted habitat and corridor modeling for 11 species out of nine families of reptiles and two vulnerable species in Qom province, central Iran, in order to identify biodiversity hotspots of species richness and threatened species for these reptiles and to compare these hotspots with current protected areas. Habitat modeling was carried out using MaxEnt for each species, and habitat patches were obtained from suitable polygons which included occurrence points. Least-cost corridors among these patches were designed using CorridorDesigner. We identified 40 habitat patches and 32 corridors among these patches for the species. The highest species richness was six species for the overlaid map of identified patches and four for the overlaid map of identified corridors. Biodiversity hotspots of species richness and two threatened species for both habitat patches and corridors covered about 22% and 14% of Qom province, respectively. These two hotspots had large overlapping areas (more than half of their areas) and showed the same general pattern. Comparison between the two types of biodiversity hotspots (i.e., species richness and threatened species) and the available protected areas revealed that the hotspots are mainly located outside of the protected areas. Therefore, these hotspots should be given the highest priority for conservation and be taken into consideration by the Department of Environment of Iran.

Mapping parasite transmission risk from white-tailed deer to a declining moose population

Abstract: White-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus) are the definitive hosts of meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) and liver fluke (Fascioloides magna); two parasites implicated in the decline of moose populations (Alces alces) in northern USA. Understanding which areas pose transmission risk may contribute to effective mitigation of these parasites in imperiled moose populations. Our objective was to predict areas of potential P. tenuis and F. magna transmission risk in terms of landscape features and deer density. Analyses were based on biogeographic and ecological factors related to both parasites. Using ecological niche modeling tools, remote sensing satellite data, field sampling, and estimated densities of WTD in Minnesota, we characterized current suitable environmental conditions for F. magna and P. tenuis across the historical range of moose in the state and identified potential areas for the occurrence of these parasites in unsampled areas. Our results help elucidate risky landscapes for F. magna and P. tenuis transmission by identifying geographic locations where WTD occur at high densities and with the landscape features suitable for the parasites. High-risk areas identified by our models may guide future surveillance, conservation, and management plans by identifying hotspots of potential infection of these parasites from WTD to moose populations. Our study shows the applicability of ecological niche modeling tools for investigating disease transmission risks of complex parasite systems for conservation purposes.

Space use by the giant anteater ( Myrmecophaga tridactyla ): a review and key directions for future research

Abstract: Understanding the use of space is essential to promote effective conservation actions, particularly to xenarthran species that are threatened by habitat loss, poaching, and other environment degradation. Information regarding the use of space by the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), a large and vulnerable Neotropical mammal, is sparse and sometimes inconsistent in the scientific literature. Our aims are (1) to present an updated overview of giant anteater use of space; (2) to identify knowledge gaps; and (3) to recommend the next steps to advance this knowledge. We compiled information from 53 publications regarding the key aspects of space use: movement patterns, home range size and overlap, and habitat use. We identified the following research priorities: (a) the need of studies on different populations throughout the species’ range, including continuous native forest areas, and different spatial scales; (b) to develop research on dispersal by the individuals; (c) to understand movement patterns based on trajectory-related methods; (d) to comprehend home range overlap and territoriality ecological meaning; and (e) habitat selection and movement patterns on human-modified landscapes.

The role of forest canopy cover in habitat selection: insights from the Iberian lynx

Abstract: Habitat selection models for woodland species usually consider forest attributes derived from land cover maps, such as an area covered by forests or distance to forest edge, but canopy cover is less frequently used as a predictor. We evaluated the effect of including forest canopy cover data in habitat selection models for woodland species using the endangered Iberian lynx as a case study. We considered four canopy cover classes for both conifer and broadleaved forests, together with other land cover predictors, and analyzed a large telemetry (GPS-GSM collars) dataset. The model that included forest canopy cover outperformed, both in predictive power and in conservation management insights, the model that only used forest area. The effect of forest canopy cover on lynx habitat selection was especially strong for broadleaved forests; an increased tree cover in these forests consistently translated into significantly lower selection probabilities. Open broadleaved forests were found to clearly be the most preferred habitat. By contrast, the habitat model without canopy cover data indicated that broadleaved forests were significantly less preferred than shrublands and mountain olive groves, which may mislead conservation management actions. We conclude that habitat selection models for woodland species should consider forest canopy cover as a relevant candidate predictor as it can capture important factors influencing habitat use, such as understory vegetation abundance or prey availability. Recent developments on remote sensing technologies will increase the availability of spatially continuous information on canopy cover, facilitating a more widespread use of vegetation structural variables in habitat modeling and hence improving the conservation planning value of these models.

Detection of humoral immunity to mycobacteria causing leprosy in Eurasian red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris ) using a quantitative rapid test

Abstract: Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris, ERS) in the British Isles are a recently discovered natural host for Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium lepromatosis. Infected squirrels can develop skin lesions or carry the bacteria without showing clinical signs. Until now the clinical diagnosis of leprosy could only be confirmed in squirrels by isolating DNA of leprosy bacilli from carcasses or by establishing the presence of acid-fast bacilli in skin sections of carcasses with clinical signs. In this study, we assessed the performance of a field-friendly diagnostic test for detection of M. leprae/M. lepromatosis infection in ERS. This up-converting phosphor lateral flow assay (UCP-LFA) is well established for detection of M. leprae specific anti-phenolic glycolipid-I antibodies (αPGL-I) IgM antibodies in humans and associated with bacterial load. Assessment was performed on serum and blood drops from live squirrels and body cavity fluid samples from dead squirrels. Clinically diseased squirrels showed significantly higher αPGL-I levels than healthy animals or subclinically infected individuals (p < 0.0001), both in serum and whole blood drop samples. Subclinically, infected animals were identified using molecular methods to detect the presence of leprosy bacilli DNA in punch biopsy tissue samples. In body cavity fluids, αPGL-I levels antibody levels were lower than in serum or blood drops. This study shows that the αPGL-I UCP-LFAs presented here allows a field-friendly serological confirmation of M. leprae infection in clinically diseased live ERS. For surveillance purposes, the combination of clinical assessment, αPGL-I UCP-LFAs, and molecular methods allow the identification of both diseased animals and subclinically infected animals.

The value of by-catch data: how species-specific surveys can serve non-target species

Abstract: Camera trapping has a wide range of research application, but, while research designs are often focused on the study of a single focal species, cameras can also record other non-target species. Occupancy modeling using by-catch data can be a valuable resource to gain information on these species maximizing the scientific effort and efficiency of wildlife surveys. In this study, we used by-catch data from a European wildcat (Felis silvestris silvestris) survey in Southern Italy to assess the habitat covariates determinant for the occupancy of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata). We recorded 33 detections at 17 out of 51 cameras (naive occupancy = 0.33). The best models fitted the data well, and porcupine occupancy estimate was 0.58 (SE ± 0.09) with a detection probability of 0.11 (SE ± 0.03). Average model showed that woodlands and number of shrub patches increased porcupine occupancy, while the reverse was true for altitude. Our results have improved the insights on the habitat use and ecological needs of this understudied species, and it is the first study that develops occupancy models for the porcupine using the presence/absence data obtained from a camera trap survey. Our study is an example of how camera trap surveys are often an under-exploited source of valuable information on a wider spectrum of sympatric species beyond the focal species for which camera traps were deployed. Minimum requirements for a camera trap survey to provide robust occupancy estimates for non-target species are discussed.

Should rehabilitated hedgehogs be released in winter? A comparison of survival, nest use and weight change in wild and rescued animals

Abstract: The rehabilitation of sick or injured wildlife and their subsequent release back into the wild is considered important, not only for the welfare of the individual animal but also for the conservation and management of endangered and threatened wildlife. The European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus has declined by 25% in Britain over the last decade and is the most common mammal admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centres in Britain, with a large proportion of individuals admitted to gain body weight overwinter prior to release in the spring. Consequently, many thousands of hedgehogs are housed overwinter which incurs significant costs for rehabilitation centres, and has potentially animal welfare issues, such as, stress in captivity, reintroduction stress, increased mortality risk and impaired or altered behaviour. To determine if releasing rehabilitated hedgehogs during autumn and winter had an effect on their survival, body weight or nesting behaviour, we compared these factors between 34 rehabilitated hedgehogs with 23 wild hedgehogs across five sites in England over four different winters. Overwinter survival was high for both wild and rehabilitated hedgehogs, with a significant decrease in survival across both groups when hedgehogs became active post hibernation in spring. We found no differences in the survival rates up to 150 days post release, in weight change, or nest use between wild- and winter-released rehabilitated hedgehogs. Our results suggest that under the correct conditions, rehabilitated hedgehogs can be released successfully during winter, therefore avoiding or reducing time in captivity.

From science to practice: genetic estimate of brown bear population size in Slovenia and how it influenced bear management

Abstract: Rapid development of molecular genetics has provided ecologists and wildlife managers with a powerful set of tools for studying and monitoring wildlife. We applied these tools to estimate the size of the brown bear population in Slovenia in 2007. In the years after the estimate was made public, we followed how this estimate affected policy and management actions in Slovenian bear management. We designed and executed a large-scale noninvasive genetic sampling across the range of this species in the country with a network of volunteers and estimated the size of the brown bear population in Slovenia using mark-recapture modeling. In a highly intensive 3-month sampling in autumn 2007, we collected 1057 samples. A total of 931 samples were successfully genotyped, yielding 354 different genotypes. Using mark-recapture and correcting for the edge effect caused by bears moving in and out of the sampling area across the Slovenian-Croatian border, and accounting for detected mortality, we estimated “winter” population size (after annual mortality, before reproduction) at 424 (95% confidence interval 383–458). We also observed an uneven male and female ratio of 0.405 and 0.595, respectively. Using “citizen science,” we managed to conduct a highly intensive large-scale sampling with modest financial resources, something that would be impossible to do otherwise. We produced the first robust, scientifically defensible estimate of the brown bear population size in Slovenia. Although at first reluctantly considered by managers as equivalent to other “traditional” population monitoring data, awareness of the importance of the estimate grew with time. It became the first reference point for understanding population dynamics, a basis to which current and future development of the population is being compared to. As such, we can expect it will profoundly affect Slovenian bear management in the years to come.

Distribution of the elusive and threatened Brazilian dwarf brocket deer refined by non-invasive genetic sampling and distribution modelling

Abstract: The Brazilian dwarf brocket deer (Mazama nana; Mammalia: Cervidae) is an elusive deer species that occupies the forests of southern Brazil, northern Argentina, and eastern Paraguay. A drastic reduction in forested areas has greatly affected the species, the least studied Neotropical deer. As do many threatened and elusive species, the Brazilian dwarf brocket deer needs a refinement of its distribution that would indicate proper sites to guide its conservation in situ. This project aimed to determine species distribution in order to establish priority areas for conservation. Given the rarity and elusiveness of the species, we proposed indirect methods to achieve this objective. We tracked and collected faecal samples in protected areas spread over southern Brazil with the help of a scat detection dog. Following species identification by PCR/RFLP and sample spatialisation, we modelled the species distribution using MaxEnt software. We found that the potential geographical distribution of the Brazilian dwarf brocket deer in Brazil is spread over the states of Parana, Santa Catarina, northern and central Rio Grande do Sul, the extreme south of Sao Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul, eastern Paraguay, and the Misiones province in Argentina. The west and centre of Parana state and part of western Santa Catarina state were identified as high conservation priority areas.

Wild raccoons in Germany as a reservoir for zoonotic agents

Abstract: The raccoon (Procyon lotor) was introduced to Germany from North America almost 200 years ago and has now spread throughout the entire country, including some urban habitats. Due to the increasing contact of wild animals with humans, the monitoring of raccoons is necessary for the identification of potentially human pathogenic organisms and in terms of public health. There are no published studies on zoonotic agents in wild raccoons for 5 of the 16 German federal states (Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, Saarland, Hamburg, Bremen). In the remaining 11 federal states, a total of 10 different pathogens were identified, belonging to the groups of viruses (canine distemper virus, hepatitis E virus), protozoa (Cryptosporidium, Neospora, Sarcocystis, Toxoplasma), parasitic worms (Alaria, Baylisascaris, Mesocestoides), and mites (Sarcoptes). Four other zoonotic pathogens have been tested (canine adenovirus 1, Enterocytozoon, Trichinella, Anaplasma) but no positive raccoons have been detected. The individual studies differ widely in geographical scope and number of animals tested, making it difficult to systematically monitor zoonotic pathogens in wild raccoons. In addition, a number of pathogens known from North America that use raccoons as intermediate or final hosts have not yet been examined in Germany. However, current data indicate that the pathogen spectrum of raccoons living wild in Germany differs significantly from that of North American raccoons. Since a potential danger by zoonotic pathogens has to be assumed, further and above all, systematic studies on wild raccoons should be accomplished.

Cortisol in hair: a comparison between wild and feral cats in the north-eastern Alps

Abstract: The quantification of glucocorticoid metabolites in hair is a non-invasive tool that provides important information regarding the endocrine status and represents a valuable method for studying potential stressors that may affect carnivores under both natural and non-natural conditions. Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid hormone of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal gland axis and is considered a standard stress indicator for animal welfare. The current study aimed to compare cortisol levels extracted from hair of both dead, frozen European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) and living feral individuals (Felis silvestris catus) living in different environmental conditions. The results obtained revealed that wild individuals exhibited a significantly (p < 0.001) higher cortisol concentration (n = 15, mean ± SD = 8.91 ± 4.48 pg/mg) than feral ones (n = 10, mean ± SD = 3.57 ± 1.25 pg/mg), probably as a result of both the physiological and/or environmental factors to which each subspecies was subject. This is the first study in which cortisol concentrations have been compared within the Felis silvestris subspecies, thus enriching the scarce information available for the Felidae. Nevertheless, further research is needed to better understand the various physiological and ecological factors affecting the adrenocortical activity of species or populations living in different environmental contexts.

Biological inventory of Ranomafana National Park tetrapods using leech-derived iDNA

Abstract: The terrestrial blood feeding leeches of family Haemadipsidae are abundant throughout the Indo-Pacific, a region which encompasses many of the world’s biodiversity hotspots. Haemadipsids have been shown to retain high-quality host DNA in their guts on the order of months and have been targeted as tools for vertebrate biodiversity assessment in tropical rainforests, where species are difficult to monitor. Complementing prior mammal-specific 16S mtDNA data, the 12S mtDNA locus optimized for tetrapods was employed to assign identities to leech hosts. Through traditional Sanger sequencing of each blood meal for each of 16S and 12S mitochondrial regions, we find a 41% increase in the diversity of taxa detected using both loci than of using 16S alone. In addition to mammalian diversity assigned through sequencing of 16S, the host identities determined through sequencing of both loci inform the diversity of sampled localities as well as the foraging behavior of the leeches themselves. We present evidence for generalist foraging among the terrestrial leeches of Madagascar (Chtonobdella fallax), with data suggesting mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles as viable leech hosts.

Noninvasive population assessment of moose (Alces alces) by SNP genotyping of fecal pellets

Abstract: Noninvasive genetic studies of wild animals enable the recovery of information infeasible to obtain using other means. However, the low quantity and quality of noninvasively collected DNA often challenge the retrieval of reliable genotypes, which may cause biases in downstream analyses. In this study, we optimized SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) genotyping of fecal samples from moose (Alces alces) with the main purpose of exploring the potential of using noninvasively retrieved genotypes for individual- and sex identification. Fecal pellets were collected during the late winter of 2016 on the Swedish island of Oland in the Baltic Sea and DNA was extracted and genotyped using 86 autosomal, six sex-specific and five species diagnostic SNPs. The SNP error rate of the quality filtered dataset was 0.06 and the probability of identity for siblings below 0.001. Following a thorough quality filtering process, 182 reliable genotypes were obtained, corresponding to 100 unique individuals (37 males, 63 females), with an estimated male proportion of 37% (± 9%). The population size, estimated using two different capture-mark-recapture approaches, was found to be in the range of 115–156 individuals (95% CI). Furthermore, moose on Oland showed significantly lower heterozygosity levels (zHexp = −5.51, N = 69, p Hexp = 3.56·10−8, zHobs = −3.58, N = 69, pHobs = 3.38·10−4) and appeared genetically differentiated from moose on the Swedish mainland. Thus, we show that quality controlled noninvasively derived SNP genotypes can be highly informative for individual and population monitoring in a large ungulate.

Impact of different panels of microsatellite loci, different numbers of loci, sample sizes, and gender ratios on population genetic results in red deer

Abstract: Population genetic parameters from different studies might be significantly influenced by differences in sample size, fraction of males and females, marker number, and sets of markers used, reducing the comparability between studies. This hypothesis was tested on a red deer population of 205 individuals with an estimated size of 1000 animals. Four tests were performed: (1) the population was subdivided into 10 populations each with 10 to 150 individuals and genotyped with 16 markers, (2) the total population was genotyped 10 times with different panels of microsatellite loci containing 2 to 14 markers, (3) a subset of 8 microsatellite loci was used to genotype the total population; markers of this subset were replaced one by one with a different marker set and genotyping results were compared to the results of the original subset and (4) the effect of sex was estimated. Additionally, 24 references from literature, including 256 European red deer populations, were analyzed. A median of 25 individuals per population was investigated in published studies using 11 microsatellite markers (5 to 22). Sixty-eight percent of possible study comparisons matched with less than 10% of microsatellite loci. Our results show that the factors investigated, except for the factor gender, lead to significant deviations in the population genetic results, especially with sample sizes below 30, with less than 6 to 8 microsatellite markers and with the use of different panels of microsatellite loci. This is also true with respect to population genetic structure and the use of Bayesian methods. Therefore, populations from different studies should be compared with each other with caution.

Feeding preferences in dry season of the Italian hare (Lepus corsicanus) in two sites of Corsica

Abstract: In this research, the diet composition and feeding selection of the Italian hare were evaluated and compared in two sites of Haute-Corse region localised in the territories of Tallone and Aleria. The present study is the first considering feeding selection of Lepus corsicanus. The considered period ranged from June to October. Quadrat method was used to assess plant frequency, while diet composition was determined by microhistological analysis of faecal pellets collected monthly. Grasses represented the basis of the diet, with frequencies around 50% in both study areas, followed by non-leguminous forbs with an incidence of 29% in Aleria and over 31% in Tallone. Leguminous forbs and shrubs complemented its diet. Poaceae resulted to be the most preferred and selected family in the diet in both sites. In the diet, we observed 79 species, but only a few of them were in percentages greater than 5%. The most utilised species in the diet were Brachypodium sylvaticum, Briza maxima, and Trifolium angustifolium in Aleria and Digitaria sanguinalis, Briza maxima, and Daucus carota in Tallone. Our study evidenced that in the considered areas, characterised also in the dry period by wide plant diversity, the Italian hare behaved as generalist. Significant differences in the diet composition and in the diversity index between the two sites showed the adaptability of the Italian hare to different habitats and the influence of the vegetation on feeding habits of the species.