G-quadruplexes (G4s) are non-canonical nucleic acids secondary structures that form within guanine-rich strands of regulatory genomic regions. G4s have been extensively described in the human genome, especially in telomeres and oncogene promoters; in recent years the presence of G4s in viruses has attracted increasing interest. Indeed, G4s have been reported in several viruses, including those involved in recent epidemics, such as the Zika and Ebola viruses. Viral G4s are usually located in regulatory regions of the genome and implicated in the control of key viral processes; in some cases, they have been involved also in viral latency. In this context, G4 ligands have been developed and tested both as tools to study the complexity of G4-mediated mechanisms in the viral life cycle, and as therapeutic agents. In general, G4 ligands showed promising antiviral activity, with G4-mediated mechanisms of action both at the genome and transcript level. This review aims to provide an updated close-up of the literature on G4s in viruses. The current state of the art of G4 ligands in antiviral research is also reported, with particular focus on the structural and physicochemical requirements for optimal biological activity. The achievements and the to-dos in the field are discussed.

G-quadruplexes and G-quadruplex ligands: targets and tools in antiviral therapy

Because of the absence of methods for tracking RNA G-quadruplex dynamics, especially the folding and unfolding of this attractive structure in live cells, understanding of the biological roles of RNA G-quadruplexes is so far limited. Herein, we report a new red-emitting fluorescent probe, QUMA-1, for the selective, continuous, and real-time visualization of RNA G-quadruplexes in live cells. The applications of QUMA-1 in several previously intractable applications, including live-cell imaging of the dynamic folding, unfolding, and movement of RNA G-quadruplexes and the visualization of the unwinding of RNA G-quadruplexes by RNA helicase have been demonstrated. Notably, our real-time results revealed the complexity of the dynamics of RNA G-quadruplexes in live cells. We anticipate that the further application of QUMA-1 in combination with appropriate biological and imaging methods to explore the dynamics of RNA G-quadruplexes will uncover more information about the biological roles of RNA G-quadruplexes.

Tracking the Dynamic Folding and Unfolding of RNA G-Quadruplexes in Live Cells.

The diverse structural landscape of quadruplexes

G-Quadruplexes: More Than Just a Kink in Microbial Genomes.

Ebola virus (EBOV), a member of the family Filoviridae, is responsible for causing Ebola virus disease (EVD) (formerly named Ebola hemorrhagic fever). This is a severe, often fatal illness with mortality rates varying from 50 to 90% in humans. Although the virus and associated disease has been recognized since 1976, it was only when the recent outbreak of EBOV in 2014-2016 highlighted the danger and global impact of this virus, necessitating the need for coming up with the effective vaccines and drugs to counter its pandemic threat. Albeit no commercial vaccine is available so far against EBOV, a few vaccine candidates are under evaluation and clinical trials to assess their prophylactic efficacy. These include recombinant viral vector (recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vector, chimpanzee adenovirus type 3-vector, and modified vaccinia Ankara virus), Ebola virus-like particles, virus-like replicon particles, DNA, and plant-based vaccines. Due to improvement in the field of genomics and proteomics, epitope-targeted vaccines have gained top priority. Correspondingly, several therapies have also been developed, including immunoglobulins against specific viral structures small cell-penetrating antibody fragments that target intracellular EBOV proteins. Small interfering RNAs and oligomer-mediated inhibition have also been verified for EVD treatment. Other treatment options include viral entry inhibitors, transfusion of convalescent blood/serum, neutralizing antibodies, and gene expression inhibitors. Repurposed drugs, which have proven safety profiles, can be adapted after high-throughput screening for efficacy and potency for EVD treatment. Herbal and other natural products are also being explored for EVD treatment. Further studies to better understand the pathogenesis and antigenic structures of the virus can help in developing an effective vaccine and identifying appropriate antiviral targets. This review presents the recent advances in designing and developing vaccines, drugs, and therapies to counter the EBOV threat.

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Bo Shu

Papers

Chemical Targeting of a G-Quadruplex RNA in the Ebola Virus L Gene