Abstract Quantum computing promises to be the next disruptive technology, with numerous possible applications and implications for organizations and markets. Quantum computers exploit principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to represent data and perform operations on them. Both of these principles enable quantum computers to solve very specific, complex problems significantly faster than standard computers. Against this backdrop, this fundamental gives a brief overview of the three layers of a quantum computer: hardware, system software, and application layer. Furthermore, we introduce potential application areas of quantum computing and possible research directions for the field of information systems. 

Quantum computing

Quantum technologies have outgrown mere fundamental research in laboratories over recent years, and will facilitate more and more potentially disruptive applications in a wide range of fields in the future. In foresight, qualification opportunities need to be implemented in order to train qualified specialists, referred to as the future quantum workforce, in various fields. Universities world-wide have launched qualification programmes for engineers focusing on quantum optics and photonics. In many of these programmes, students attend courses on quantum physics contextualized via quantum optics experiments with heralded photons, because: (1) their experimental and physical foundations may be directly leveraged to teaching a number of quantum technology applications, and (2) physics education research has provided empirical evidence, according to which such quantum optics-based approaches are conducive to learning about quantum concepts. While many teachers are confident about the effectiveness of their concepts, there is little empirical evidence due to the lack of content-area-specific research tools. We present a 16-item concept inventory to assess students’ conceptual understanding of quantum optics concepts in the context of experiments with heralded photons adopted from a test instrument published in the literature. We have administered this Quantum Optics Concept Inventory as a post-test to N=216 students after instruction on quantum optics as part of an undergraduate engineering course. We evaluated the instruments’ psychometric quality, both in terms of classical test theory, and using a Rasch scaling approach. The Quantum Optics Concept Inventory enables a reliable measure (α=0.74), and the data gathered show a good fit to the Rasch model. The students’ scores suggest that fundamental quantum effects pose striking learning hurdles to the engineering students. In contrast, most of the students are able to cope with the experimental and technical foundations of quantum optics experiments with heralded photons and their underlying principles, such as the coincidence technique used for the preparation of single-photon states. These findings are in accordance with prior research, and hence, the Quantum Optics Concept Inventory may serve as a fruitful starting point for future empirical research with regard to the education of the future quantum workforce. 

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Assessing Engineering Students’ Conceptual Understanding of Introductory Quantum Optics

Quantum technology is exploding. Computing, communication, and sensing are just a few areas likely to see breakthroughs in the next few years. Worldwide, national governments, industries, and universities are moving to create a new class of workforce - the Quantum Engineers. Demand for such engineers is predicted to be in the tens of thousands within a five-year timescale. However, how best to train this next generation of engineers is far from obvious. Quantum mechanics - long a pillar of traditional physics undergraduate degrees - must now be merged with traditional engineering offerings. This paper discusses the history, development, and first year of operation of the world's first undergraduate degree in quantum engineering. The main purpose of the paper is to inform the wider debate, now being held by many institutions worldwide, on how best to formally educate the Quantum Engineer. 

Development of an Undergraduate Quantum Engineering Degree

Quantum technology is exploding. Computing, communication, and sensing are just a few areas likely to see breakthroughs in the next few years. Worldwide, national governments, industries, and universities are moving to create a new class of workforce - the Quantum Engineers. Demand for such engineers is predicted to be in the tens of thousands within a five-year timescale. However, how best to train this next generation of engineers is far from obvious. Quantum mechanics - long a pillar of traditional physics undergraduate degrees - must now be merged with traditional engineering offerings. This paper discusses the history, development, and first year of operation of the world's first undergraduate degree in quantum engineering. The main purpose of the paper is to inform the wider debate, now being held by many institutions worldwide, on how best to formally educate the Quantum Engineer.

The rapidly growing quantum information science and engineering (QISE) industry will require both quantum-aware and quantum-proficient engineers at the bachelor's level. We provide a roadmap for building a quantum engineering education program to satisfy this need. For quantum-aware engineers, we describe how to design a first quantum engineering course accessible to all STEM students. For the education and training of quantum-proficient engineers, we detail both a quantum engineering minor accessible to all STEM majors, and a quantum track directly integrated into individual engineering majors. We propose that such programs typically require only three or four newly developed courses that complement existing engineering and science classes available on most larger campuses. We describe a conceptual quantum information science course for implementation at any post-secondary institution, including community colleges and military schools. QISE presents extraordinary opportunities to work towards rectifying issues of inclusivity and equity that continue to be pervasive within engineering. We present a plan to do so and describe how quantum engineering education presents an excellent set of education research opportunities. Finally, we outline a hands-on training plan on quantum hardware, a key component of any quantum engineering program, with a variety of technologies including optics, atoms and ions, cryogenic and solid-state technologies, nanofabrication, and control and readout electronics. Our recommendations provide a flexible framework that can be tailored for academic institutions ranging from teaching and undergraduate-focused two- and four-year colleges to research-intensive universities.

Building a Quantum Engineering Undergraduate Program

Quantum information science and technology (QIST) has progressed significantly in the last decade, such that it is no longer solely in the domain of research labs, but is now beginning to be developed for, and applied in, industrial applications and products. With the emergence of this new quantum industry, a new workforce trained in QIST skills and knowledge is needed. To help support education and training of this workforce, universities and colleges require knowledge of the type of jobs available for their students and what skills and degrees are most relevant for those new jobs. Additionally, students need to know how to tailor their degrees to best align with the current needs of the quantum industry. We report on the results from a survey of 57 companies in the quantum industry, with the goal of elucidating the jobs, skills, and degrees that are relevant for this new workforce. We find a range of job opportunities from highly specific jobs, such as quantum algorithm developer and error correction scientist, to broader jobs categories within the business, software, and hardware sectors. These broader jobs require a range of skills, most of which are not quantum related. Further, except for the highly specific jobs, companies that responded to the survey are looking for a range of degree levels to fill these new positions, from bachelors to masters to PhDs. With this knowledge, students, instructors, and university administrators can make informed decisions about how to address the challenge of increasing the future quantum workforce.

Celia Merzbacher

Papers

Assessing the Needs of the Quantum Industry

Building a Quantum Engineering Undergraduate Program