'Introduction' In their path-breaking article, Low & MacMillan (1988) suggest that entrepreneurship be defined as the 'creation of new enterprise'. The purpose of entrepreneurship research should be to 'explain and facilitate the role of new enterprise in furthering economic progress' (p. 141). Such a delineation, they hold, would encourage researchers to consider both micro and macro perspec-tives. They argued that researchers must acknowledge that entrepreneurship studies could and should be carried out at multiple levels of analysis and that these analyses complement each other. The reasons for studying entrepreneurship on multiple levels of analysis lie in the charac-teristics of the entrepreneurial phenomenon itself. Entrepreneurship takes place and has effects on different societal levels simultaneously. Schumpeter (1934) already linked the entrepreneurial initiatives of individuals to the creation and destruction of industries as well as to economic de-velopment. Several other scholars have contributed to increasing our understanding about entre-preneurship on different levels of analysis, ranging from the individual to the economy-at-large. The following paragraph highlights some of the levels of analysis that have been identified. In doing so it illustrates the richness of approaches.
It is individuals who carry out entrepreneurial initiatives (Schumpeter, 1934). These initia-tives take place in organizational contexts (Moran & Ghoshal, 1999, Shane & Venkataraman, 2000), often resulting in the formation of new firms (Gartner, 1988; Schumpeter, 1934) or the rejuvenation and improved performance of established firms (Covin & Slevin, 1991; Lumpkin & Dess, 1996; Wiklund, 1998; Zahra, 1991). Entrepreneurial initiatives often result in innovations, which in turn may alter existing industries (Schumpeter, 1934), or create new ones (Aldrich & Martinez, this issue). The belief that such processes have profound effects on employment and economic growth on the societal level (Baumol, 1993; Birch, 1979; McGrath, 1999) is one of the major reasons for the increased interest in entrepreneurship.
The above does not only illustrate that studies on different levels of analysis can be valu-able, but clearly shows that these levels are intimately entwined. Therefore, as Low and MacMil-lan suggested (1988, p. 152), there may be reason to integrate different levels of analysis in em-pirical research......(continues)
In the remainder of the article, level of analysis refers to the hierarchy of aggregation in terms of micro and aggregate level. More fine-grained categorizations of micro (e.g. individual, team, firm) and aggregate (e.g. region, nation) levels are possible as well as alternative hierar-chies (e.g., firm, industry, economy-at-large vs. firm, region, nation). The level on which the principal research questions are posed and analyses carried out rather than the level at which data are collected determines the level of analysis. It is, for instance, common to first collect and then aggregate data from individuals in regional studies of entrepreneurship. If the analyses compare regional differences in entrepreneurial activity based on the aggregation of individuals, this would be a study at the regional level even though data were collected from individuals.

Levels of analysis in entrepreneurship research: Current research practice and suggestions for the future

The authors use empirical research into the environmental practices of 31 manufacturing small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to show that ‚business performance’ and ‚regulation’ considerations drive behaviour. They suggest that this is inevitable, given the market-based decision-making frames that permeate and dominate the industry in which manufacturing SMEs operate. Since the environment is a pillar of corporate social responsibility (CSR), the findings have important implications for CSR policy, which promotes voluntary actions predicated on a business case. It is argued that this approach will not alter the behaviour of manufacturing SMEs significantly because CSR practice will be regarded as an optional and costly ‚extra’ affecting core business activity. Consequently, the use and development of existing regulatory structures, providing minimum standards for many activities covered by CSR, remains the most effective means through which the behaviour of manufacturing SMEs will be changed in the short to medium-term. Another feature of the paper is the distinction made between ‚business performance’ and the ‚business case’ argument. Business performance emphasises cost reductions and efficiency whereas the business case accentuates the benefits to shareholders of good practices as their firms become more attractive to stakeholders and society. Manufacturing SMEs␣try to improve business performance because of the pressures placed on them by market-dominated decision-making frames. These frames do not encourage manufacturing SMEs to undertake voluntary actions for the benefit of wider stakeholders and society.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/25123876.pdf

Drivers of Environmental Behaviour in Manufacturing SMEs and the Implications for CSR

In their path-breaking article, Low and MacMillan (1988) suggest that entrepreneurship be defined as the “creation of new enterprise.” The purpose of entrepreneurship research should be to “explain and facilitate the role of new enterprise in furthering economic progress” (p. 141). Such a delineation, they hold, would o- and macro-perspectives. They argue that researchers must acknowledge that entrepreneurship studies could and should be carried out at multiple levels of analysis and that these analyses complement each other. The reasons for studying entrepreneurship on multiple levels of analysis lie in the characteristics of the entrepreneurial phenomenon itself.

/pdf/levels-of-analysis-in-entrepreneurship-research-current-2p5g1frhho.pdf

Levels of Analysis in Entrepreneurship Research: Current Research Practice and Suggestions for the Future *

In this essay, we outline the provocative argument that in the realm of human affairs there exists an “entrepreneurial method” analogous to the scientific method spelled out by Francis Bacon and others with regard to the natural realm. We then suggest a series of open questions that we believe will help future scholars spell out the contents of such a method and ways in which it can be put to work in the design and achievement of socioeconomic ends. At least one normative implication of accepting the argument would be to teach entrepreneurship not only to entrepreneurs but to everyone, as a necessary and useful skill and an important way of reasoning about the world.

Entrepreneurship as Method: Open Questions for an Entrepreneurial Future:

In this paper an economic-psychological model of factors that influence individuals’ intentions to go into business for themselves is developed and tested. According to this model the primary determinant of entrepreneurial intention is a person’s conviction that starting and running one’s own firm is a suitable alternative for him/her. This conviction is in its turn based on certain general attitudes and domain attitudes. The former refer to more general psychological dispositions whereas the latter specifically concern entrepreneurship and owner-managed firms.
 
Attitudes are believed to act as mediators for influences of personal background factors. Apart from this ‿main chain‿ of causal influences, the individual’s current situation (i.e., employment status) is expected to have an impact on both conviction and intentions. The importance of this type of situational influence has been highlighted by previous research.

The model is tested on a large sample of 35-40 years old Swedish subjects. A mail questionnaire with multiple indicators of the concepts in the model was distributed to 300 subjects each in 6 different regions. A response rate of over 70 percent was obtained. The use of six separate samples allows for checking the stability of the results.

The results largely support the relationships suggested by the model. Comparatively high explanatory power (35 and over 50 percent, respectively) was obtained for conviction and intentions. The supposed effects of background factors and current situation were also confirmed. However, the analyses suggest that part of the influence of background factors is not mediated by the used psychological constructs.

It is concluded that the model neatly summarizes and integrates much of what we know from previous research about factors that influence individuals’ entrepreneurial inclinations, and also adds some new insights.

Determinants Of Entrepreneurial Intentions

PROFESSOR JOHN STANWORTH, Stephanie Blyth, Bill Granger, and Celia Standworth are all members of the Future of Work Research Group at the London Management Centre, Polytechnic of Central London, England. At the current time, they are involved in several research projects, one of them being the study of rates of intergenerational inheritance of enterprise culture-a principal theme of this paper. The authors examine evidence from several countries in an attempt to predict the incidence of enterpreneurship and conclude that sociological determinants offer the best indication as to precisely who, among the many who express an interest, is most likely actually to make the transition to self-employment. In addition to examining the contributions of others in this field, the paper presents data recently collected by the authors themselves.

Who Becomes an Entrepreneur

Retail franchising: an intellectual capital perspective

This article provides a critical analysis of the information age literature, explores its attractions for management and assesses evidence of the impact of the information age on the UK. It finds that material changes to work organisations and employment relationships frequently contrast with the optimistic predictions contained in much of the writing.

Telework and the Information Age

Widespread social transformation and new class structures are predicted with the coming of the "information age", but there is disagreement about the likely outcomes for work and employment patterns. Mainstream writing on the information age, both from the functionalist and Marxist traditions, tends not to consider likely consequences for women, but recent feminist research on gender and technology, treating technology as masculine culture, offers a useful framework for further research. This article argues that the information age may lead to some areas of convergence between the sexes in their experience of future work, but men may continue to defend areas of competence and to dominate the high status and powerful occupational positions of the future.

Women and Work in the Information Age

Widespread social transformation and new class structures are predicted with the coming of the ‘information age’, but there is disagreement about the likely outcomes for work and em-ployment patterns. Mainstream writing on the information age, both from the functionalist and Marxist traditions, tends not to consider likely consequences for women, but recent feminist research on gender and technology, treating technology as masculine culture, offers a useful framework for further research. This article argues that the information age may lead to some areas of convergence between the sexes in their experience of future work, but men may continue to defend areas of competence and to dominate the high status and powerful occupational positions of the future.

Celia Stanworth

Papers

Who Becomes an Entrepreneur

Retail franchising: an intellectual capital perspective

Telework and the Information Age

Women and Work in the Information Age

Women and Work in the Information Age