Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

http://www.dpi.inpe.br/Miguel/Michelle/Referencias/Ecologia_da_Paisagem/BiologicalConservation_SpecialIssue_2009/02_Ribeiro_et_al_biocons_2009.pdf

The Brazilian Atlantic Forest:: how much is left and how is the remaining forest distributed? Implications for conservation

Roads are a widespread and increasing feature of most landscapes. We reviewed the scientific liter- ature on the ecological effects of roads and found support for the general conclusion that they are associated with negative effects on biotic integrity in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Roads of all kinds have seven general effects: mortality from road construction, mortality from collision with vehicles, modification of animal behavior, alteration of the physical environment, alteration of the chemical environment, spread of exotics, and increased use of areas by humans. Road construction kills sessile and slow-moving organisms, injures organisms adjacent to a road, and alters physical conditions beneath a road. Vehicle collisions affect the demography of many species, both vertebrates and invertebrates; mitigation measures to reduce roadkill have been only partly successful. Roads alter animal behavior by causing changes in home ranges, move- ment, reproductive success, escape response, and physiological state. Roads change soil density, temperature, soil water content, light levels, dust, surface waters, patterns of runoff, and sedimentation, as well as adding heavy metals (especially lead), salts, organic molecules, ozone, and nutrients to roadside environments. Roads promote the dispersal of exotic species by altering habitats, stressing native species, and providing movement corridors. Roads also promote increased hunting, fishing, passive harassment of animals, and landscape modifications. Not all species and ecosystems are equally affected by roads, but overall the pres- ence of roads is highly correlated with changes in species composition, population sizes, and hydrologic and geomorphic processes that shape aquatic and riparian systems. More experimental research is needed to com- plement post-hoc correlative studies. Our review underscores the importance to conservation of avoiding con- struction of new roads in roadless or sparsely roaded areas and of removal or restoration of existing roads to benefit both terrestrial and aquatic biota.

/pdf/review-of-ecological-effects-of-roads-on-terrestrial-and-4pqj0rsd84.pdf

Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities.

One of the ecological tenets justifying conservation of biodiversity is that diversity begets stability. Impacts of biodiversity on population dynamics and ecosystem functioning have long been debated1–7, however, with many theoretical explorations2–6,8–11 but few field studies12–15. Here we describe a long-term study of grasslands16,17 which shows that primary productivity in more diverse plant communities is more resistant to, and recovers more fully from, a major drought. The curvilinear relationship we observe suggests that each additional species lost from our grasslands had a progressively greater impact on drought resistance. Our results support the diversity—stability hypothesis5,6,18,19, but not the alternative hypothesis that most species are functionally redundant19–21. This study implies that the preservation of biodiversity is essential for the maintenance of stable productivity in ecosystems.

Biodiversity and stability in grasslands

Biodiversity and stability in Grasslands

1. The effects of habitat fragmentation on the distribution pattern of the moor frog Rana arvalis were investigated. Also, the possible isolation effects of the road network were taken into account. 2. Indications were found that habitat fragmentation partly explains the distribution pattern of the moor frog. The statistical models showed a positive effect of pond size (or marsh area) and a negative effect of road density on the probability of occupation of a moorland pond. 3. Because of the strong correlation between habitat quality variables and isolation variables, no unambiguous effects of isolation, described as the amount of suitable terrestrial habitat (moorland) in the surroundings of a moorland pond in a radius of 100-2000 m, could be demonstrated. 4. Spatial differences in road density can play a role in the selection of optimal locations for nature protection areas. The regression model used in this study predicts a reduced occupation probability in 55% of the study area. In the part of the study area adjacent to a motorway, occupation probability is lowered to less than 30%. 5. European studies of habitat fragmentation on amphibian species revealed a mean distance between occupied ponds of <1 km in all studies. This could be a general rule of thumb for persistent amphibian populations. Effects of pond size on the probability of occupation were more variable. 6. When discussing the effects of habitat fragmentation on amphibians and other ground dwelling species, the negative effects of roads are often underestimated.

Effects of habitat fragmentation and road density on the distribution pattern of the moor frog Rana arvalis

Nature conservation is increasingly based on a landscape approach rather than a species approach. Landscape planning that includes nature conservation goals requires integrated ecological tools. However, species differ widely in their response to landscape change. We propose a framework of ecologically scaled landscape indices that takes into account this variation. Our approach is based on a combination of field studies of spatially structured populations (metapopulations) and model simulations in artificial landscapes. From these, we seek generalities in the relationship among species features, landscape indices, and metapopulation viability. The concept of ecological species profiles is used to group species according to characteristics that are important in metapopulations' response to landscape change: individual area requirements as the dominant characteristic of extinction risk in landscape patches and dispersal distance as the main determinant of the ability to colonize patches. The ecol...

/pdf/toward-ecologically-scaled-landscape-indices-3s0qrtryzd.pdf

Toward ecologically scaled landscape indices.

Landscapes are studied by pattern (the geographical approach) and by process (the ecological approach within landscape ecology). The future of landscape ecology depends on whether the two approaches can be integrated. We present an approach to bridge the gap between the many detailed process studies on species, and applied activities such as landscape evaluation and design, which require integrated knowledge. The approach consists of four components: 1) Empirical case studies of different scales, organisms and processes. 2) Modeling studies to extrapolate empirical studies across space and time. 3) Modeling studies to produce guidelines and standards for landscape conditions. 4) Methods and tools for integration to the landscape level, which can be built into multidisciplinary tools for design and evaluation. We conclude that in the landscape ecological literature, the steps 1 and 2 are well represented, whereas the steps 3 and 4 are mostly neglected. We challenge landscape ecologists to push landscape ecology to a higher level of maturation and to further develop its profile as a problem-oriented science.

/pdf/bridging-the-gap-between-ecology-and-spatial-planning-in-6srl5d6tsa.pdf

Bridging the gap between ecology and spatial planning in landscape ecology

1. Climate change has been inducing range shifts for many species as they follow their suitable climate space and further shifts are projected. Whether species will be able to colonize regions where climate conditions become suitable, so-called 'new climate space', depends on species traits and habitat fragmentation. 2. By combining bioclimate envelope models with dispersal models, we identified areas where the spatial cohesion of the ecosystem pattern is expected to be insufficient to allow colonization of new climate space. 3. For each of three ecosystem types, three species were selected that showed a shift in suitable climate space and differed in habitat fragmentation sensitivity. 4. For the 2020 and 2050 time slices, the amount of climatically suitable habitat in northwest Europe diminished for all studied species. Additionally, significant portions of new suitable habitat could not be colonized because of isolation. Together, this will result in a decline in the amount of suitable habitat protected in Natura 2000 sites. 5. We develop several adaptation strategies to combat this problem: (i) link isolated habitat that is within a new suitable climate zone to the nearest climate-proof network; (ii) increase colonizing capacity in the overlap zone, the part of a network that remains suitable in successive time frames; (iii) optimize sustainable networks in climate refugia, the part of a species' range where the climate remains stable. 6. Synthesis and applications. Following the method described in this study, we can identify those sites across Europe where ecosystem patterns are not cohesive enough to accommodate species' responses to climate change. The best locations for climate corridors where improving connectivity is most urgent and potential gain is highest can then be pinpointed.

Adapting landscapes to climate change: examples of climate-proof ecosystem networks and priority adaptation zones

The Netherlands landscape is an example of environments managed for high rates of production and other human uses. The data and emerging principles of landscape ecology as developed in this volume apply to a variety of other managed landscapes worldwide.

Claire C. Vos

Papers

Effects of habitat fragmentation and road density on the distribution pattern of the moor frog Rana arvalis

Toward ecologically scaled landscape indices.

Bridging the gap between ecology and spatial planning in landscape ecology

Adapting landscapes to climate change: examples of climate-proof ecosystem networks and priority adaptation zones

Landscape Ecology of a Stressed Environment