The aim of this critical review is to provide a broad but digestible overview of mechanochemical synthesis, i.e. reactions conducted by grinding solid reactants together with no or minimal solvent. Although mechanochemistry has historically been a sideline approach to synthesis it may soon move into the mainstream because it is increasingly apparent that it can be practical, and even advantageous, and because of the opportunities it provides for developing more sustainable methods. Concentrating on recent advances, this article covers industrial aspects, inorganic materials, organic synthesis, cocrystallisation, pharmaceutical aspects, metal complexes (including metal–organic frameworks), supramolecular aspects and characterization methods. The historical development, mechanistic aspects, limitations and opportunities are also discussed (314 references).

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Mechanochemistry: opportunities for new and cleaner synthesis

This review focuses on key aspects of the thermal decomposition of multinary or mixed hydride materials, with a particular emphasis on the rational control and chemical tuning of the strategically important thermal decomposition temperature of such hydrides, Tdec. An attempt is also made to predict the thermal stability of as-yet unknown, elusive or even unknown hydrides. The future of a particularly promising class of materials for hydrogen storage, namely the catalytically enhanced complex metal hydrides, is discussed. The predictions are supported by thermodynamics considerations, calculations derived from molecular orbital (MO) theory and backed up by simple chemical insights and intuition.

Thermal decomposition of the non-interstitial hydrides for the storage and production of hydrogen.

Bone is a hierarchically structured composite material which, in addition to its obvious biological value, has been well studied by the materials engineering community because of its unique structure and mechanical properties. This article will review the existing bone literature, with emphasis on the prevailing theories regarding bone formation and structure, which lay the groundwork for proposing a new model to explain how intrafibrillar mineralization of collagen can be achieved during bone formation. Intrafibrillar refers to the fact that growth of the mineral phase is somehow directed by the collagen matrix, which leads to a nanostructured architecture consisting of uniaxially oriented nanocrystals of hydroxyapatite embedded within and roughly [0 0 1] aligned parallel to the long collagen fibril axes. Secondary (osteonal) bone, the focus of this review, is a laminated organic–inorganic composite composed primarily of collagen, hydroxyapatite, and water; but minor constituents, such as non-collagenous proteins (NCPs), are also present and are thought to play an important role in bone formation. To date, there has been no clear understanding of the role of these NCPs, although it has been generally assumed that the NCPs regulate solution crystal growth via some type of ‘epitaxial’ relationship between specific crystallographic faces and specific protein conformers. Indeed, ‘epitaxial’ relationships have been calculated; but in practice, it has not been demonstrated that intrafibrillar mineralization can be accomplished via this route. Because of the difficulty in examining biomineralization processes in vivo , the authors of this article have turned to using in vitro model systems to investigate the possible physicochemical mechanisms that may be involved in biomineralization. In the case of bone biomineral, we have now been able to duplicate the most fundamental level of bone structure, the interpenetrating nanostructured architecture, using relatively simple anionic polypeptides that mimic the polyanionic character of the NCPs. We propose that the charged polymer acts as a process-directing agent, by which the conventional solution crystallization is converted into a precursor process. This polymer-induced liquid-precursor (PILP) process generates an amorphous liquid-phase mineral precursor to hydroxyapatite which facilitates intrafibrillar mineralization of type-I collagen because the fluidic character of the amorphous precursor phase enables it to be drawn into the nanoscopic gaps and grooves of collagen fibrils by capillary action. The precursor then solidifies and crystallizes upon loss of hydration waters into the more thermodynamically stable phase, leaving the collagen fibrils embedded with nanoscopic hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals. Electron diffraction patterns of the highly mineralized collagen fibrils are nearly identical to those of natural bone, indicating that the HA crystallites are preferentially aligned with [0 0 1] orientation along the collagen fibril axes. In addition, studies of etched samples of natural bone and our mineralized collagen suggest that the long accepted “deck of cards” model of bone's nanostructured architecture is not entirely accurate. Most importantly, this in vitro model demonstrates that a highly specific, epitaxial-type interaction with NCPs is not needed to stimulate crystal nucleation and regulate crystal orientation, as has long been assumed. Instead, we propose that collagen is the primary template for crystal organization, but with the important caveat that this templating occurs only for crystals formed from an infiltrated amorphous precursor. These results suggest that the 25-year-old debate regarding bone formation via an amorphous precursor phase needs to be revisited. From a biomedical perspective, in addition to providing possible insight into the role of NCPs in bone formation, this in vitro system may pave the way toward the ultimate goal of fabricating a synthetic bone substitute that not only has a composition similar to bone, but has comparable mechanical properties and bioresorptive potential as natural bone. From a materials chemistry perspective, the non-specificity of the PILP process and capillary infiltration mechanism suggests that non-biological materials could also be fabricated into nanostructured composites using this “biomimetic” strategy.

Bone structure and formation: A new perspective

!Received 19 December 2005; accepted 27 January 2006 "The deÞnitions for important Rietveld error indices are deÞned and discussed. It is shown that whilesmaller error index values indicate a better Þt of a model to the data, wrong models with poor qualitydata may exhibit smaller values error index values than some superb models with very high qualitydata. © 2006 International Centr e for Diffraction Data. #DOI: 10.1 154/1.2179804 $

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R factors in Rietveld analysis: How good is good enough?

SnO2: A comprehensive review on structures and gas sensors

A set of general guidelines for structure refinement using the Rietveld (whole-profile) method has been formulated by the International Union of Crystallography Commission on Powder Diffraction. The practical rather than the theoretical aspects of each step in a typical Rietveld refinement are discussed with a view to guiding newcomers in the field. The focus is on X-ray powder diffraction data collected on a laboratory instrument, but features specific to data from neutron (both constant-wavelength and time-of-flight) and synchrotron radiation sources are also addressed. The topics covered include (i) data collection, (ii) background contribution, (iii) peak-shape function, (iv) refinement of profile parameters, (v) Fourier analysis with powder diffraction data, (vi) refinement of structural parameters, (vii) use of geometric restraints, (viii) calculation of e.s.d.'s, (ix) interpretation of R values and (x) some common problems and possible solutions.

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Rietveld refinement guidelines

The crystal structure of the synthetic zeolite silica-ZSM-12, 56 SiO{sub 2}, has been solved by the combined use of high-resolution solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy and high-resolution synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction ZSM-12 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group C2/c with a{sub 0} = 24.863 {angstrom}, b{sub 0} = 5.012 {angstrom}, c{sub 0} = 24.328 {angstrom}, and {beta} = 107.7{degree}. The zeolite host structure is built from corner-linked SiO{sub 4} tetrahedra to give a three-dimensional 4-connected net. The pores of the structure are one-dimensional channels that do not intersect, with 12-membered ring pore openings of approximately 5.6 {times} 7.7 {angstrom}. The structure of ZSM-12 is frequently twinned with (100) as the twin plane, which indicates a new zeolite structure type.

Crystal structure of silica-ZSM-12 by the combined use of high-resolution solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy and synchrotron x-ray powder diffraction

Silver trifluoride: preparation, crystal structure, some properties, and comparison with AuF3

The lattice structure of a pure and completely siliceous sample of zeolite ZSM-11 has been investigated by a combination of high-resolution solid-state {sup 29}Si MAS NMR and synchrotron-based X-ray powder diffraction techniques. The structure is temperature dependent in the range 263-363 K and a good fit to the diffraction data at 363 K is obtained with space group I{anti 4}m2 and a{sub 0} = 20.067 (1) and c{sub 0} = 13.411 (1). At room temperature the XRD data cannot be refined as the structure is intermediate and the lattice structure of the limiting low-temperature, low-symmetry form will only be deduced from data collected at 263 K.

Detailed investigation of the lattice structure of zeolite ZSM-11 by a combination of solid-state NMR and synchrotron x-ray diffraction techniques

During the past year, a dedicated triple-axis powder diffractometer has been in routine operation at the Brookhaven National Synchrotron Light Source as a user-oriented facility. The diffractometer is designed to allow easy interchange between energy-dispersive and monochromatic beam experiments. In the latter mode of operation, high resolution data have been collected for a variety of samples with the use of the crystal-analyser technique, and in several cases these data sets have been used successfully for structure solution and Rietveld refinement. Several aspects of data acquisition at a synchrotron beam-line are described, and some of the different types of scattering geometry which have been used are discussed. Simple expressions are given for the instrumental resolution function expressed as the angular variation of peak widths for each of these. The peak shapes observed for a reference sample of Si on the present triple-axis instrument are well described by the convolution of Gaussian and Lorentzian functions, and the angular dependence of the Gaussian component is in excellent agreement with the corresponding calculated instrumental function. One of the most important considerations for each type of experiment is the necessary compromise between intensity Ilnd resolution over a wide range of scattering angles, and some of the available options are discussed. In particular, the use of Ge(440) and LiF(400) analyser crystals gives a focussing minimum at relatively high angles (28 ::::: 50· at 1·54 A), a highly desirable feature for Rietveld analysis of complex structures. Absolute intensities from reference samples of Si and Ce02 are calculated for these and several other scattering configurations involving both fiat-plate and capillary geometry to illustrate this compromise.

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D.E. Cox

Papers

Rietveld refinement guidelines

Crystal structure of silica-ZSM-12 by the combined use of high-resolution solid-state MAS NMR spectroscopy and synchrotron x-ray powder diffraction

Silver trifluoride: preparation, crystal structure, some properties, and comparison with AuF3

Detailed investigation of the lattice structure of zeolite ZSM-11 by a combination of solid-state NMR and synchrotron x-ray diffraction techniques

Acquisition of power diffraction data with synchrotron radiation