Galactic winds are the primary mechanism by which energy and metals are recycled in galaxies and are deposited into the intergalactic medium New observations are revealing the ubiquity of this process, particularly at high redshift We describe the physics behind these winds, discuss the observational evidence for them in nearby star-forming and active galaxies and in the high-redshift universe, and consider the implications of energetic winds for the formation and evolution of galaxies and the intergalactic medium To inspire future research, we conclude with a set of observational and theoretical challenges

Galactic Winds

▪ Abstract We discuss current observational and theoretical knowledge of magnetic fields, especially the large-scale structure in the disks and halos of spiral galaxies. Among other topics, we consider the enhancement of global magnetic fields in the interarm regions, magnetic spiral arms, and representations as superpositions of azimuthal modes, emphasizing a number of unresolved questions. It is argued that a turbulent hydromagnetic dynamo of some kind and an inverse cascade of magnetic energy gives the most plausible explanation for the regular galactic magnetic fields. Primordial theory is found to be unsatisfactory, and fields of cosmological origin may not even be able to provide a seed field for a dynamo. Although dynamo theory has its own problems, the general form of the dynamo equations appears quite robust. Finally, detailed models of magnetic field generation in galaxies, allowing for factors such as spiral structure, starbursts, galactic winds, and fountains, are discussed and confronted with...

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Galactic Magnetism: Recent developments and perspectives

We have obtained moderate resolution (R = few thousand) spectra of the Na I λλ5890, 5896 (Na D) absorption line in a sample of 32 far-IR-bright starburst galaxies. In 18 cases, the Na D line in the nucleus is produced primarily by interstellar gas, while cool stars contribute significantly in the others. In 12 of the 18 "interstellar-dominated" cases the Na D line is blueshifted by over 100 km s-1 relative to the galaxy systemic velocity (the "outflow sources"), while no case shows a net redshift of more than 100 km s-1. The absorption-line profiles in these outflow sources span the range from near the galaxy systemic velocity to a maximum blueshift of ~400-600 km s-1. The outflow sources are galaxies systematically viewed more nearly face-on than the others. We therefore argue that the absorbing material consists of ambient interstellar material that has been entrained and accelerated along the minor axis of the galaxy by a hot starburst-driven superwind. The Na D lines are optically thick, but indirect arguments imply total hydrogen column densities of NH ~ few × 1021 cm-2. This implies that the superwind is expelling matter at a rate comparable to the star formation rate. This outflowing material is evidently very dusty: we find a strong correlation between the depth of the Na D profile and the line-of-sight reddening. Typical implied values are E(B-V) = 0.3-1 over regions several-to-10 kpc in size. We briefly consider some of the potential implications of these observations. The estimated terminal velocities of superwinds inferred from the present data and extant X-ray data are typically 400-800 km-1, are independent of the galaxy rotation speed, and are comparable to (substantially exceed) the escape velocities for L* (dwarf) galaxies. The resulting selective loss of metals from shallower potential wells can establish the mass-metallicity relation in spheroids, produce the observed metallicity in the intracluster medium, and enrich a general IGM to of order 10-1 solar metallicity. If the outflowing dust grains can survive their journey into the IGM, their effect on observations of cosmologically distant objects would be significant.

Absorption-Line Probes of Gas and Dust in Galactic Superwinds

We discuss moderate resolution spectra of the NaD absorption-line in a sample of 32 far-IR-bright starburst galaxies. In 18 cases, the line is produced primarily by interstellar gas, and in 12 of these it is blueshifted by over 100 km/s relative to the galaxy systemic velocity. The absorption-line profiles in these outflow sources span the range from near the galaxy systemic velocity to a maximum blueshift of 400 to 600 km/s. The outflows occur in galaxies systematically viewed more nearly face-on than the others. We therefore argue that the absorbing material consists of ambient interstellar gas accelerated along the minor axis of the galaxy by a hot starburst-driven superwind. The NaD lines are optically-thick, but indirect arguments imply total Hydrogen column densities of N_H = few X 10^{21} cm^{-2}. This implies that the superwind is expelling matter at a rate comparable to the star-formation rate. This outflowing material is very dusty: we find a strong correlation between the depth of the NaD profile and the line-of-sight reddening (E(B-V) = 0.3 to 1 over regions several-to-ten kpc in size). The estimated terminal velocities of superwinds inferred from these data and extant X-ray data are typically 400 to 800 km/s, are independent of the galaxy rotation speed, and are comparable to (substantially exceed) the escape velocities for $L_*$ (dwarf) galaxies. The resulting loss of metals can establish the mass-metallicity relation in spheroids, produce the observed metallicity in the ICM, and enrich a general IGM to 10$^{-1}$ solar metallicity. If the outflowing dust grains survive their journey into the IGM, their effect on observations of cosmologically-distant objects is significant.

Cosmic magnetic fields – as observed in the Universe, in galactic dynamos, and in the Milky Way

An optical polarization map for the starburst galaxy NGC 1808 is presented. On kiloparsec scales the polarization orientations follow the spiral arms, indicative of a magnetic field that is coherent on a galactic scale. The inner parts (<750 pc) of the galaxy show a polarization pattern that is typical of a huge reflection nebula illuminated from within the central activity. Although the galactic nucleus is the dominant illuminating source of this nebula, the other hotspots make varying contributions to the illumination. The inner reflection nebula is very reminiscent of the one in the archetypal starburst galaxy M82

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Imaging polarimetry of the starburst galaxy NGC 1808: another M82?

Multi-colour imaging polarimetry of the galaxy NGC 2146

Imaging polarimetry of the blue compact galaxy NGC 3125

Imaging polarimetry of the luminous merger galaxy NGC 3256

Optical imaging polarimetry has been carried out for the polar ring, starburst galaxy NGC 660. This galaxy has a highly inclined, severely tidally-disturbed disk which is sur- rounded by a gas-rich, polar ring. We detect scattered light from a large part of the halo and this is attributable to dust grains re- siding up to ' 2:5 kpc from the stellar disk. There is evidence from emission-line imaging carried out in the past, that NGC 660 is host to an energetic outflow of hot gas along the minor axis (a 'superwind'). Our results indicate that dust grains are entrained in this same outflow. Polarization due to scattering, however, is also present at positions away from the minor axis suggesting that grains may also be displaced from the stellar disk by tidal forces exerted during galactic collisions. Where the polar ring occludes the stellar disk we observe polarization due to magnetically aligned, dichroic grains. By comparing the recorded polarization with the associated optical extinction we infer that the magnetic field in the ring has a lower (but still comparable) strength to the magnetic field in the Milky Way. We also derive a dust-to-gas ratio for the ring and this is about a factor of 2-3 lower than in the solar neighbourhood (but close to the value measured in some nearby spirals). If the ring comprises the remnants of the 'interloper' which collided with NGC 660, we expect that the ruptured galaxy was a massive, metal-rich spiral.

http://aa.springer.de/papers/0357002/2300443.pdf

D. P. Stockdale

Papers

Imaging polarimetry of the starburst galaxy NGC 1808: another M82?

Multi-colour imaging polarimetry of the galaxy NGC 2146

Imaging polarimetry of the blue compact galaxy NGC 3125

Imaging polarimetry of the luminous merger galaxy NGC 3256

Polarimetric imaging of the polar ring galaxy NGC 660 - evidence for dust outside the stellar disk