We propose a fully homomorphic encryption scheme -- i.e., a scheme that allows one to evaluate circuits over encrypted data without being able to decrypt. Our solution comes in three steps. First, we provide a general result -- that, to construct an encryption scheme that permits evaluation of arbitrary circuits, it suffices to construct an encryption scheme that can evaluate (slightly augmented versions of) its own decryption circuit; we call a scheme that can evaluate its (augmented) decryption circuit bootstrappable.Next, we describe a public key encryption scheme using ideal lattices that is almost bootstrappable.Lattice-based cryptosystems typically have decryption algorithms with low circuit complexity, often dominated by an inner product computation that is in NC1. Also, ideal lattices provide both additive and multiplicative homomorphisms (modulo a public-key ideal in a polynomial ring that is represented as a lattice), as needed to evaluate general circuits.Unfortunately, our initial scheme is not quite bootstrappable -- i.e., the depth that the scheme can correctly evaluate can be logarithmic in the lattice dimension, just like the depth of the decryption circuit, but the latter is greater than the former. In the final step, we show how to modify the scheme to reduce the depth of the decryption circuit, and thereby obtain a bootstrappable encryption scheme, without reducing the depth that the scheme can evaluate. Abstractly, we accomplish this by enabling the encrypter to start the decryption process, leaving less work for the decrypter, much like the server leaves less work for the decrypter in a server-aided cryptosystem.

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Fully homomorphic encryption using ideal lattices

An important open problem in the area of Traitor Tracing is designing a scheme with constant expansion of the size of keys (users' keys and the encryption key) and of the size of ciphertexts with respect to the size of the plaintext. This problem is known from the introduction of Traitor Tracing by Chor, Fiat and Naor. We refer to such schemes as traitor tracing with constant transmission rate. Here we present a general methodology and two protocol constructions that result in the first two public-key traitor tracing schemes with constant transmission rate in settings where plaintexts can be calibrated to be sufficiently large. Our starting point is the notion of copyrighted function which was presented by Naccache, Shamir and Stern. We first solve the open problem of discrete-log-based and public-key-based copyrighted function. Then, we observe the simple yet crucial relation between (public-key) copyrighted encryption and (public-key) traitor tracing, which we exploit by introducing a generic design paradigm for designing constant transmission rate traitor tracing schemes based on copyrighted encryption functions. Our first scheme achieves the same expansion efficiency as regular ElGamal encryption. The second scheme introduces only a slightly larger (constant) overhead, however, it additionally achieves efficient black-box traitor tracing (against any pirate construction).

Traitor Tracing with constant transmission rate

A method includes encrypting information in accordance with an encryption scheme that uses a public key; encrypting a plurality of instances of a secret key, each being encrypted using at least one additional instance of the public key; sending the encrypted information and the plurality of encrypted instances of the secret key to a destination; receiving an encrypted result from the destination; and decrypting the encrypted result. A further method includes receiving a plurality of encrypted secret keys and information descriptive of a function to be performed on data; converting the information to a circuit configured to perform the function on the data; and applying the data to inputs of the circuit and evaluating the data using, in turn, the plurality of encrypted secret keys.

Fully Homomorphic Encryption Method Based On A Bootstrappable Encryption Scheme, Computer Program And Apparatus

We propose multi-bit versions of several single-bit cryptosystems based on lattice problems, the error-free version of the Ajtai-Dwork cryptosystem by Goldreich, Goldwasser, and Halevi [CRYPTO '97], the Regev cryptosystems [JACM 2004 and STOC 2005], and the Ajtai cryptosystem [STOC 2005]. We develop a universal technique derived from a general structure behind them for constructing their multi-bit versions without increase in the size of ciphertexts. By evaluating the trade-off between the decryption errors and the hardness of underlying lattice problems, it is shown that our multi-bit versions encrypt O(log n)-bit plaintexts into ciphertexts of the same length as the original ones with reasonable sacrifices of the hardness of the underlying lattice problems. Our technique also reveals an algebraic property, named pseudohomomorphism, of the lattice-based cryptosystems.

/pdf/multi-bit-cryptosystems-based-on-lattice-problems-3svhzz4t2p.pdf

Multi-bit cryptosystems based on lattice problems

In one exemplary embodiment of the invention, a method and computer program include: receiving first and second ciphertexts having first and second data encrypted per an encryption scheme, the encryption scheme has public/secret keys and encryption, decryption, operation and refresh functions, the encryption function encrypts data, the decryption decrypts ciphertext, the operation receives ciphertexts and performs operation(s) on them, the refresh operates to prevent growth of the magnitude of noise for a ciphertext while reducing the modulus of the ciphertext without using the secret key, utilizing a modulus switching technique that involves transforming a first ciphertext c modulo q into a second ciphertext c′ modulo p while preserving correctness, the technique includes scaling by p/q and rounding, p<q; using the operation function(s), performing operation(s) on them to obtain a third ciphertext; and reducing a noise level of the third ciphertext using the refresh function.

/pdf/fully-homomorphic-encryption-5acxvh3zu6.pdf

Fully Homomorphic Encryption

Ajtai and Dwork proposed a public-key encryption scheme in 1996 which they proved secure under the assumption that the unique shortest vector problem is hard in the worst case. This cryptosystem and its extension by Regev are the only one known for which security can be proved under a worst case assumption, and as such present a particularly interesting case to study.

In this paper, we show statistical zero-knowledge protocols for statements of the form “plaintext m corresponds to ciphertext c” and “ciphertext c and c' decrypt to the same value” for the Ajtai-Dwork cryptosystem. We then show a interactive zero-knowledge proof of plaintext knowledge (PPK) for the Ajtai-Dwork cryptosystem, based directly on the security of the cryptosystem rather than resorting to general interactive zero-knowledge constructions. The witness for these proofs is the randomness used in the encryption.

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Dmitriy Kharchenko

Papers

Proof of plaintext knowledge for the ajtai-dwork cryptosystem