Showing papers by "Don Harris published in 2010"

Aviation as a system of systems: Preface to the special issue of human factors in aviation

Abstract: Aviation is a system of systems. Maier (1998) characterised a ‘system of systems’ as possessing five basic traits: operational independence of elements; managerial independence of elements; evoluti...

The relationship between manual handling performance and recent flying experience in air transport pilots

Abstract: Modern jet transport aircraft are typically flown using the on-board automation by the pilot programming commands into the auto-flight systems. Anecdotal evidence exists suggesting that pilots of highly automated aircraft experience manual flying skills decay as a result of a lack of opportunity to practise hand-flying during line operations. The ability of a pilot to revert to basic manual control is essential, for example, in cases where the aircraft's automatic capability is diminished or when reconfiguring the automatics is an ineffective use of crew capacity. However, there is a paucity of objective data to substantiate this perceived threat to flight safety. Furthermore, traditional performance measurement techniques may lack the ability to identify subtle but significant differences in pilots' manual handling ability in large transport aircraft. This study examines the relationship between pilot manual handling performance and their recent flying experience using both traditional flight path tracking measures and frequency-based control strategy measures. Significant relationships are identified between pilots' very recent flying experience and their manual control strategy. Statement of Relevance: The study demonstrates a novel application of frequency analysis, which produces a broader and more sensitive analysis of pilot performance than has been offered in previous research. Additionally, the relationships that are found to exist between recent flying experience and manual flying performance will help to guide future pilot assessment and training.

Predicting design-induced error in the cockpit

Abstract: This paper describes the Human Error Identification (HEI) Technique called the Human Error Template (HET). HET has been developed specifically for the aerospace industry in response to Certification Specification (CS) 25.1302. In particular, it is intended as an aid for the early identification of design-induced errors, and as a formal method to demonstrate the inclusion of human factors issues in the design and certification process of aircraft flight-decks, including supplemental type certification. The template-based approach was chosen because it appeared to be quick to learn and easy to use. HET uses a hierarchical task analysis as its starting point. A checklist of twelve (12) external error modes is used to determine which might lead to credible errors for each task step. For each credible error a description is given and the outcome described. If the likelihood of the error and the consequences are both high then that task step is rated as a ‘Fail’. The error mode taxonomy developed comprises: fail to execute a task, task execution incomplete, in the wrong direction, wrong task executed, task repeated, on the wrong interface element, too early, too late, too much, too little, misread information, and other. HET was then compared to SHERPA, HAZOP and HEIST. Thirty seven (37) analysts were employed in this study based on a landing scenario. HET showed significantly better Sensitivity Index scores than any of the other methods, and the greatest number of correct error predictions (hits). The results from the HET validation study demonstrate that HET meets all the criteria set. It is easy to learn, the error taxonomy has been specifically designed for flight-deck tasks, it is auditable, and it has been proved to be both reliable and valid. HET is recommended for use in the design, evaluation and certification of aircraft flight-decks.

Human factors for flight deck certification: Issues in compliance with the new European aviation safety agency certification specification 25.1302

Abstract: In September 2007 EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency) implemented a new airworthiness rule (CS 25.1302) that mandates for the error tolerant design of flight deck equipment on all new large commercial aircraft. The stimulus for the rule was the 1996 FAA Human Factors Team Report on the Interfaces between Flightcrews and Modern Flight Deck Systems, which was commissioned as a result of several accidents occurring to new (at the time) technology airliners. This report made many criticisms of the flight deck interfaces and design processes, including a lack of human factors expertise on design teams and too much emphasis being placed on the physical ergonomics of the pilot’s workplace and not on the cognitive ergonomics. This paper provides a very brief overview of the concept of design-induced error and the background to the rule, before providing a brief summary of the acceptable means of compliance with the regulation and providing a brief critique of the criteria of the related measurement instruments and methods available.

Applying work domain analysis to study airport collaborative decision making design

Abstract: This paper outlines the usage of a Work Domain Analysis (WDA) for the assessment of operational information requirements for pilots during Airport Collaborative Decision Making (A-CDM). A-CDM presents unique challenges for decision support during dispatch of aircraft and passengers. Decisions by participating airport partners require an understanding of own capabilities as well as the capabilities of participating actors like pilots, air traffic controllers, or other actors involved. While some situations can be pre-planned, decision makers during turn-round operation will always be faced with unanticipated situations resulting from unknown variables in the environment or technological capabilities. Work Domain Analysis (WDA) is a technique which allows to model systems by using event-independent representations that can be used to cope with such unanticipated situations. However, to confirm that this technique can be applied usefully, an early validation is required to ascertain that the WDA is relevant to the problem context. This paper presents an approach for confirming a WDA by using pilots as subject matter experts (SMEs) during aircraft turn-round. Firstly, pilots' operational information requirements were identified via an Abstraction-Decomposition Space (ADS) of the A-CDM system developed by the analysis. Then, pilots were asked via a survey to report about events where problems with operational information sharing were encountered during turn-round. Finally, these events experienced by the pilots were mapped through the pilots' information requirements derived from the ADS. The results reveal that pilots' information requirements are not entirely satisfied by current approach to A-CDM and provide confirmation for the usefulness of the WDA to the proposed application as a technique for an A-CDM interface design cycle (A). For the covering abstract of the conference see ITRD E217872.

Monitoring the airport-cdm turnround process: Applying a qualitative cognitive model based on field observations

Abstract: The objective of this study is to better understand the cognitive mechanisms for monitoring the Aircraft Turn-Round Process during normal operation. Networks of participating operators during aircraft turnround are becoming increasingly large and complex, and so creating unique challenges for human operators who must monitor these networks for reliable and safe operation. The aircraft turn-round as the linking element between the arrival phase and departure phase of flight requires specific decision support for the assignment of a Target Off-Block Time (TOBT) which is an important trigger to inform the Air Traffic Management (ATM) network about an estimate for the completion of the turnround. In this study, field observations with focus on cognitive activities were conducted during five different airlines’ turn-round operations in situ for a total of approximately 122 hours. Focus was applied on monitoring turn-rounds having only Minimum Turn-Round Time (MTTT) available. This is a novel approach of viewing the turn-round monitoring process since cognitive mechanisms of turn-round controllers have not been identified yet as a contributing factor for TOBT prediction. The findings indicate that monitoring strategies used by turn-round controllers are different, even through problem settings are similar. While turn-round monitoring and control has traditionally taken place at the aircraft, operators started to move management of the turn-round away from physical location of the aircraft into a control room. However, observations have shown that the predictive capabilities inherent at established ways of turn-round monitoring cannot be transferred into a control room without prior analysis of the monitoring and facilitating activities used by the turn-round controllers. Findings were organized in a qualitative cognitive model originally developed domain specific during operators’ monitoring of nuclear power plants.

Using HET taxonomy to help stop human error

Abstract: Flight crews make positive contributions to the safety of aviation operations. Pilots have to assess continuously changing situations, evaluate potential risks, and make quick decisions. However, even well-trained and experienced pilots make errors. Accident investigations have identified that pilots' performance is influenced significantly by the design of the flightdeck interface. This research applies hierarchical task analysis (HTA) and utilizes the Human Error Template (HET) taxonomy to collect error data from pilots during flight