BACKGROUND: Postal and electronic questionnaires are widely used for data collection in epidemiological studies but non-response reduces the effective sample size and can introduce bias. Finding ways to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires would improve the quality of health research. OBJECTIVES: To identify effective strategies to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched 14 electronic databases to February 2008 and manually searched the reference lists of relevant trials and reviews, and all issues of two journals. We contacted the authors of all trials or reviews to ask about unpublished trials. Where necessary, we also contacted authors to confirm methods of allocation used and to clarify results presented. We assessed the eligibility of each trial using pre-defined criteria. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials of methods to increase response to postal or electronic questionnaires. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We extracted data on the trial participants, the intervention, the number randomised to intervention and comparison groups and allocation concealment. For each strategy, we estimated pooled odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) in a random-effects model. We assessed evidence for selection bias using Egger's weighted regression method and Begg's rank correlation test and funnel plot. We assessed heterogeneity among trial odds ratios using a Chi(2) test and the degree of inconsistency between trial results was quantified using the I(2) statistic. MAIN RESULTS: PostalWe found 481 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 110 different ways of increasing response to postal questionnaires. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were at least doubled using monetary incentives (odds ratio 1.87; 95% CI 1.73 to 2.04; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I(2) = 84%), recorded delivery (1.76; 95% CI 1.43 to 2.18; P = 0.0001, I(2) = 71%), a teaser on the envelope - e.g. a comment suggesting to participants that they may benefit if they open it (3.08; 95% CI 1.27 to 7.44) and a more interesting questionnaire topic (2.00; 95% CI 1.32 to 3.04; P = 0.06, I(2) = 80%). The odds of response were substantially higher with pre-notification (1.45; 95% CI 1.29 to 1.63; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 89%), follow-up contact (1.35; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.55; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 76%), unconditional incentives (1.61; 1.36 to 1.89; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 88%), shorter questionnaires (1.64; 95% CI 1.43 to 1.87; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 91%), providing a second copy of the questionnaire at follow up (1.46; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.90; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 82%), mentioning an obligation to respond (1.61; 95% CI 1.16 to 2.22; P = 0.98, I(2) = 0%) and university sponsorship (1.32; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.54; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 83%). The odds of response were also increased with non-monetary incentives (1.15; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 79%), personalised questionnaires (1.14; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.22; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 63%), use of hand-written addresses (1.25; 95% CI 1.08 to 1.45; P = 0.32, I(2) = 14%), use of stamped return envelopes as opposed to franked return envelopes (1.24; 95% CI 1.14 to 1.35; P < 0.00001, I(2) = 69%), an assurance of confidentiality (1.33; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.42) and first class outward mailing (1.11; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.21; P = 0.78, I(2) = 0%). The odds of response were reduced when the questionnaire included questions of a sensitive nature (0.94; 95% CI 0.88 to 1.00; P = 0.51, I(2) = 0%).ElectronicWe found 32 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 27 different ways of increasing response to electronic questionnaires. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were increased by more than a half using non-monetary incentives (1.72; 95% CI 1.09 to 2.72; heterogeneity P < 0.00001, I(2) = 95%), shorter e-questionnaires (1.73; 1.40 to 2.13; P = 0.08, I(2) = 68%), including a statement that others had responded (1.52; 95% CI 1.36 to 1.70), and a more interesting topic (1.85; 95% CI 1.52 to 2.26). The odds of response increased by a third using a lottery with immediate notification of results (1.37; 95% CI 1.13 to 1.65), an offer of survey results (1.36; 95% CI 1.15 to 1.61), and using a white background (1.31; 95% CI 1.10 to 1.56). The odds of response were also increased with personalised e-questionnaires (1.24; 95% CI 1.17 to 1.32; P = 0.07, I(2) = 41%), using a simple header (1.23; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.48), using textual representation of response categories (1.19; 95% CI 1.05 to 1.36), and giving a deadline (1.18; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.34). The odds of response tripled when a picture was included in an e-mail (3.05; 95% CI 1.84 to 5.06; P = 0.27, I(2) = 19%). The odds of response were reduced when "Survey" was mentioned in the e-mail subject line (0.81; 95% CI 0.67 to 0.97; P = 0.33, I(2) = 0%), and when the e-mail included a male signature (0.55; 95% CI 0.38 to 0.80; P = 0.96, I(2) = 0%). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Health researchers using postal and electronic questionnaires can increase response using the strategies shown to be effective in this systematic review.

/pdf/methods-to-increase-response-to-postal-and-electronic-4sjz3r84m4.pdf

Methods to increase response to postal and electronic questionnaires

This article reports the results of a meta-analysis of experimental studies which have examined ten different factors felt to influence response rates to mail surveys. The form of meta- analysis used clearly defines the individual impact of each of the factors examined. Results indicate that prenotification and follow-ups increase the response rate, as does the type of outgo- ing postage used. Furthermore, studies sponsored by a university receive greater returns. Increases in the size of the monetary incentive used appear to have decreasing marginal gains. Finally, some evidence exists to suggest that the color of the question- naire influences response rate. The extensive use of mail surveys coupled with the low response rates typically encountered has made the issue of mail survey response rate improvement an intriguing topic. High response rates have the obvi- ous benefits of increased sample size, reduced costs associated with follow-up contacts, and reduced concern over nonresponse bias. Many experiments have been conducted to measure the effectiveness of one or more of the factors expected to influence response rates. The purpose of this paper is to apply a form of meta-analysis to reported experimental findings to isolate and estimate the individual impact of several typical response rate enhancement techniques. The meta-analysis technique used avoids the problems associated with past similar efforts but is more restrictive in the factors which can be exam-

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2749256.pdf

Mail survey response rate a meta-analysis of selected techniques for inducing response

Background: Postal questionnaires are widely used for data collection in epidemiological studies but non-response reduces the effective sample size and can introduce bias. Finding ways to increase response rates to postal questionnaires would improve the quality of health research. Objectives: To identify effective strategies to increase response rates to postal questionnaires. Search strategy: We aimed to find all randomised controlled trials of strategies to increase response rates to postal questionnaires. We searched 14 electronic databases to February 2003 and manually searched the reference lists of relevant trials and reviews, and all issues of two journals. We contacted the authors of all trials or reviews to ask about unpublished trials. Where necessary, authors were also contacted to confirm methods of allocation used and to clarify results presented. We assessed the eligibility of each trial using pre-defined criteria. Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of methods to increase response rates to postal questionnaires. Data collection and analysis: We extracted data on the trial participants, the intervention, the number randomised to intervention and comparison groups and allocation concealment. For each strategy, we estimated pooled odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals in a random effects model. Evidence for selection bias was assessed using Egger's weighted regression method and Begg's rank correlation test and funnel plot. Heterogeneity among trial odds ratios was assessed using a chi-square test at a 5% significance level and the degree of inconsistency between trial results was quantified using I2. Main results: We found 372 eligible trials. The trials evaluated 98 different ways of increasing response rates to postal questionnaires and for 62 of these the combined trials included over 1,000 participants. We found substantial heterogeneity among trial results in half of the strategies. The odds of response were at least doubled using monetary incentives (odds ratio 1.99, 95% CI 1.81 to 2.18; heterogeneity p < 0.00001, I 2 =78%), recorded delivery (2.04, 1.60 to 2.61; p=0.0004, I 2 =69%), a teaser on the envelope - e.g. a comment suggesting to participants that they may benefit if they open it (3.08, 1.27 to 7.44) and a more interesting questionnaire topic (2.44, 1.99 to 3.01; p=0.74, I 2 =0%). The odds of response were substantially higher with pre-notification (1.50, 1.29 to 1.74; p < 0.00001, I 2 =90%), follow-up contact (1.44, 1.25 to 1.65; p < 0.0001, I 2 =68%), unconditional incentives (1.61, 1.27 to 2.04; p < 0.00001, I 2 =91%), shorter questionnaires (1.73, 1.47 to 2.03; p < 0.00001, I 2 =93%), providing a second copy of the questionnaire at follow-up (1.51, 1.13 to 2.00; p < 0.00001, I 2 =83%), mentioning an obligation to respond (1.61, 1.16 to 2.22; p=0.98, I 2 =0%) and university sponsorship (1.32, 1.13 to 1.54; p < 0.00001, I 2 =83%). The odds of response were also increased with non-monetary incentives (1.13, 1.07 to 1.21; p < 0.00001, I 2 =71%), personalised questionnaires (1.16, 1.07 to 1.26; p < 0.00001, I 2 =67%), use of coloured as opposed to blue or black ink (1.39, 1.16 to 1.67), use of stamped return envelopes as opposed to franked return envelopes (1.29, 1.18 to 1.42; p < 0.00001, I 2 =72%), an assurance of confidentiality (1.33, 1.24 to 1.42) and first class outward mailing (1.12, 1.02 to 1.23). The odds of response were reduced when the questionnaire included questions of a sensitive nature (0.94, 0.88 to 1.00; p=0.51, I 2 =0%), when questionnaires began with the most general questions (0.80, 0.67 to 0.96), or when participants were offered the opportunity to opt out of the study (0.76, 0.65 to 0.89; p=0.46, I 2 =0%). Authors' conclusions: Health researchers using postal questionnaires can increase response rates using the strategies shown to be effective in this systematic review. Copyright © 2008 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Methods to increase response rates to postal questionnaires

The main aim of the paper is to study the causal relationship between two constructs, perceived quality and satisfaction, in the particular case of multiservice organisations. These organisations offer a range of services to their customers, so that evaluation of perceived overall quality and of satisfaction is more complex than that of a single service. The study centres on two publicly‐owned multiservice organisations: hospitals, and universities. The particular nature of multiservice organisations is that, when dealing with the influences of the dimensions of perceived quality, it is necessary to take into consideration not only the perceived quality of each of the services, but also the perceived overall quality of the multiservice organisation and the overall satisfaction with it.

Perceived quality and satisfaction in multiservice organisations: the case of Spanish public services

This article examines the norms of school failure and illuminates ways in which low-income students of color respond to their needs for educational advancement when conditions to support their coll...

/pdf/unveiling-the-promise-of-community-cultural-wealth-to-1jb168bap3.pdf

Unveiling the Promise of Community Cultural Wealth to Sustaining Latina/o Students’ College-Going Information Networks

Follow-Up Methods, Questionnaire Length, and Market Differences in Mail Surveys

C progress has been made in the art of data collection and in the reduction of nonsampling error in survey research.' However, there are still many areas in opinion research about which little is known or the existing evidence is inconclusive. This is especially true for mail surveys, where empirical research has failed to bring about agreement on the nature or degree of influence of the factors that affect response rate.' The authors believe there are three major reasons for this information gap: many variables influencing the response, the lack of a comprehensive theory, and the limited resources allocated to fundamental research on survey techniques. Three aspects of mail surveys are of considerable practical importance and yet are not well understood. First, how effective are different

Follow-up Methods, Questionnaire Length, and Market Differences in Mail Surveys: In this experimental test, a telephone reminder produced the best response rate and questionnaire length had no effect on rate of return.

One Nation, One Standard covers a lot of ground: this short book is a memoir of Herman Badillo’s early life and political career intertwined with his reflections on increasing upward mobility of Hispanics in the United States. As an admirer of Mr. Badillo, I greatly enjoyed the book as biography for its engrossing and inspiring view into his long life of personal and professional achievement. Now in his late 70s, Badillo rose from a childhood of poverty in Puerto Rico to a highly successful career as a political reformer. His achievements in education include raising academic standards in the New York City public school system and the City University of New York. His accounts of these long struggles reveal courage, determination and tenacity in the face of political resistance and intransigence from educational administrators, teachers’ unions, and left-wing faculty groups. One Nation, One Standard is less successful on a policy level. References are sparse, and Badillo’s policy recommendations are largely personal reflections stemming from his own experiences. Educational policy questions, such as the effectiveness of special education programs and ability tracking, require a more scholarly and in-depth analysis than could be included in this short memoir. The author discusses Hispanic-Americans as one homogenous cultural group rather than making distinctions among Hispanic groups from different countries of origin. In this context, some readers may take exception to his inclusion of Puerto Ricans, who are US citizens, in Hispanic immigrants. Herman Badillo’s early life and education resemble a Horatio Alger story. He was born in a small Puerto Rican town where his father was a teacher and his parents among the few Protestants on the largely Catholic island. Orphaned at age five after his parents died from tuberculosis, he spent the rest of his childhood with relatives. He was the only Protestant in his aunt’s family and continued to attend church Acad. Quest. (2007) 20:251–255 DOI 10.1007/s12129-007-9014-x

https://rd.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs12129-007-9014-x.pdf

Dorothy Lang

Papers

Follow-Up Methods, Questionnaire Length, and Market Differences in Mail Surveys

Follow-up Methods, Questionnaire Length, and Market Differences in Mail Surveys: In this experimental test, a telephone reminder produced the best response rate and questionnaire length had no effect on rate of return.

One Nation, One Standard: An Ex-Liberal on How Hispanics Can Succeed Just Like Other Immigrant Groups, by Herman Badillo