Bioenergy is one of the alternatives to reduce the dependence of global energy on fossil fuels. The short rotation coppice (SRC) of eucalypt species appears as an interesting option for forest biomass production in a short time. However, the harvesting of whole trees (included the crown) in SRC systems has implications on sustainable land use. More information is required on the increase of biomass as renewable energy resource to achieve the sustainability of these crops. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the sustainable use of biomass from very high-density eucalypt plantations, managed at tropical conditions for bioenergy. To accomplish this objective, the tree was fractionated into three fractions: stem, branches, and leaves, and there was determination of the dry matter, energy yield, and nutrients export. This experiment used a short rotation coppice, a hybrid clone of Eucalyptus urophylla  ×  Eucalyptus grandis , of 2 years old. According to the results obtained, the density planting and fertilization levels have a greater influence on the dry matter yield, energy yield, and nutrient exports. The higher density planting reaches mean values of 30.9 tonnes of dry matter per hectare (t DM ha −1 ) and 743.3 GJ ha −1 . Considering the biomass yield and nutrients export of short rotation coppice of eucalypt, the higher density planting with the lower dose of fertilization is more indicative of sustainable use. The leaves have an important participation in nutrients export and should be retained in the soil of forest.

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Sustainable use of eucalypt biomass grown on short rotation coppice for bioenergy

Modified foragers represent a cost-effective option for harvesting high-density short-rotation energy plantations. However, new energy plantations grown in Brazil far exceed the stocking and the stem size characterizing plantations in the Northern hemisphere, which raises the question about the ability of modified foragers to perform effectively. A study was conducted on five eucalyptus plantations, located in different Brazilian States and spanning over a wide range of work conditions in terms of clone, age, planting density and row system (e.g. single or twin rows). Field stocking varied between 90 and 157 t ha −1 , and breast-height diameter between 5 and 8 cm. The tests were conducted with a New Holland 9060 forager, equipped with a 130 FB energy wood header. This machine was capable of negotiating all test fields, and reached a productivity on these sites between 39 and 65 t h −1 , which was comparable with the productivity values recorded in Europe and North America. The machine coped well with the high field stocking and stem size levels encountered in Brazil. Blockages accounted for a very small proportion of total harvesting time, which was similar to that recorded in studies conducted on poplar and willow in the Northern hemisphere. Productivity was directly proportional to field stocking and target chip length. Changing target chip length from 30 to 20 mm resulted in a 20–30% reduction in productivity. These figures reflect work conditions in uncoppiced first-rotation plantations, and they should be applied with some caution to following rotations.

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Harvesting eucalyptus energy plantations in Brazil with a modified New Holland forage harvester.

Short Rotation Coppices (SRC) can be a suitable solution for the production of biomass, mainly due to the easy-to-harvest good-quality feedstock. Besides technical, social and economic aspects, environmental issues are important to be taken into account when developing SRC. Although some studies focused on environmental sustainability of SRC were carried out only few compare different arboreous species using primary data. In this study, the environmental evaluation of SRC plantations carried out with 14 poplar and 6 willow clones was performed using primary data collected during experimental field tests over 12 years. Twelve impact potentials were evaluated using the characterization factors reported by the ILCD method: climate change (CC), ozone depletion (OD), Human toxicity, cancer effects (HTc), Human toxicity, non-cancer effects (HT), particulate matter (PM), photochemical ozone formation (POF), acidification (TA), freshwater eutrophication (FE), terrestrial eutrophication (TE), marine eutrophication (ME), freshwater ecotoxicity (FEx) and mineral, fossil and renewable resource depletion (MFRD). Both for poplar and for willow, among the different clones the environmental performance greatly vary mainly due to the yield. The choice of the most productive clones involves a reduction of the environmental impact of the produced biomass of about 35% (respect to the average results both for poplar and willow). However, biofuel production from willow SRC achieves lower environmental burdens respect to poplar SRC considering both the average biomass yield and the most productive clones.

Woody biofuel production from short rotation coppice in Italy: Environmental-impact assessment of different species and crop management

The international market of woody biomass for bioenergy is expected to have a major role in future global scenarios aligning with a 2 or 1.5 °C target. However, the quantification of the environmental impacts of energy and transportation services from novel technologies and biomass production systems are yet to be extensively studied on a case-specific basis. We use a life cycle assessment approach to quantify environmental impacts of four bioenergy systems based on eucalyptus plantations established in abandoned pastureland in Brazil. The alternative bioenergy systems deliver energy and transportation services in Europe (cradle-to-gate analysis), including modern technologies for production of heat, electricity (with and without carbon capture and storage), and advanced liquid biofuels. We find that all bioenergy systems can achieve sizeable climate benefits, but in some cases at increased pressure in other impact categories. The most impacting activities are biomass transport stages, followed by eucalyptus stand establishment, and pellet production. An estimate of the potential large-scale bioenergy deployment of eucalyptus established in marginal areas in Brazil shows that up to 7 EJ of heat, 2.5 EJ of electricity, or 5 EJ of transportation biofuels per year can be delivered. This corresponds to a climate mitigation potential between 0.9% and 2.4% (0.29 and 0.83 GtCO2 per year) of the global anthropogenic emissions in 2015, and between 5.7% and 16% of European emissions, depending on the specific bioenergy system considered. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the best environmental performance is achieved with on-site biomass storage, transportation of wood chips with trucks, pellets as energy carrier, and larger ship sizes. Our quantitative environmental analysis contributes to increased understanding of the potential benefits and tradeoffs of large-scale supply of biomass resources, and additional research can further improve resolution and integrate environmental impact indicators within a broader sustainability perspective, as indicated by the recently established sustainable development goals.

Energy and Environmental Aspects of Using Eucalyptus from Brazil for Energy and Transportation Services in Europe

Studies related to biomass production, with a focus on energy uses for short-rotation woody crops (SRWCs), are limited in Latin America. The research that is available relates to a variety of tested SRWC species (50 species), however, the most important species are Populus, Salix, Eucalyptus, Acacia, and Gmelina arborea. In the existing studies, stocking densities varied from 1111 to 20,000 trees per hectare, with square or rectangular spacing. One important advantage of SRWC systems in this region, compared to most regions worldwide, is the predictability of biomass yields due to the tropical climate conditions of the majority of the Latin American countries. Rotations of three and four years can be projected to produce total biomass yields of 30–50 tons/ha, with increments of 10–20 tons/ha/yr. Fertilization is performed in SRWC with the aim of preventing soil degradation and maintaining further production. In regards to possible uses of biofuel generated from SRWC in Latin America, an inconvenience is that there are neither well-established harvesting systems nor conventional pre-treatments to process the biomass. Processes that are available in the region that use biomass from SRWC for energy production are gasification and pellet production. Other potential biofuel processes, such as torrefaction and biochemical conversion, are limited in this area.

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Short Rotation Wood Crops in Latin American: A Review on Status and Potential Uses as Biofuel

Heating value of eucalypt wood grown on SRC for energy production

Os sistemas florestais de curta rotacao possuem elevada produtividade em reduzido espaco de tempo e area, entretanto poucos trabalhos enfocam a qualidade da biomassa florestal produzida nessas condicoes. De fato, a qualidade da materia-prima e muito importante para alto rendimento nos sistemas energeticos. Dessa forma, este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a madeira com casca proveniente de diferentes sistemas florestais adensados, por meio do conhecimento do poder calorifico superior e dos principais componentes quimicos da madeira – lignina insoluvel, extrativos e cinzas. Adicionalmente, estudou-se o acumulo desses componentes por arvore ao longo do tempo. As florestas clonais de Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandisforam plantadas em cinco espacamentos de plantio e tres niveis de adubacao. Aos 18, 24 e 30 meses apos o plantio, coletaram-se arvores-amostra, das quais foram separados discos da regiao do DAP para analises quimicas. No geral, os teores de lignina insoluvel, extrativos totais e cinzas obtidos nos diferentes tratamentos estao de acordo com os encontrados na literatura e assemelham-se aos das arvores mais velhas da mesma especie. O acumulo dos componentes quimicos por arvore foi maior em florestas menos adensadas (espacamentos mais amplos).

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Chemical analysis of wood with bark in short rotation forestry systems

Invasive plants can profoundly modify physical and biological characteristics of their new environments, especially when such habitats are already fragmented and reduced by anthropogenic pressure, such as the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Here, we hypothesized that exotic palms successfully establish among the natural Euterpe edulis populations through a continuous propagule input by avifauna, high germination rates, and rapid growth. As a result, the native palm is experiencing decline and may be threatened with extinction. Beginning in 2007, we conducted a continuous forest inventory (FCI) every three years in the primary and secondary forest fragments of Vicosa, Minas Gerais. We use a Markov matrix to project future distributions of palm trees. The secondary forest contained three exotic palm species: Archontophoenix alexandrae, Livistona chinensis, and Arenga caudata. The first palm is a serious risk to natural E. edulis populations in the Atlantic because of frequent interactions with birds, rapid germination, and aggressive colonization in the lower to medium vertical forest strata. Currently, natural E. edulis populations are viable and sustainable, capable of regeneration, growth, and fruiting, their communities maintain continuous gene flow, dominating vertical forest strata compared with exotic palms. However, exotic palms should be monitored and control measures should be analyzed, especially in areas with A. alexandrae populations.

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Exotic palms threatens native palms: a risk to plant biodiversity of atlantic forest

RESUMO Na tentativa de restabelecer as propriedades quimicas, fisicas e biologicas do solo, as praticas de deixar areas em pousio e opcao encontrada por agricultores. Mas a falta de cobertura do solo com alguma vegetacao ou ate mesmo leguminosa com sistema radicular que ajudam no rompimento das camadas compactadas pode facilitar a melhoria das condicoes do solo. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o indice de cone de dois tipos de solo: Latosso vermelho (Lv) e um Nitossolo vermelho (Nv). Os dados de resistencia foram coletados em duas areas pertencentes a Fazenda Experimental Lageado, Faculdade de Ciencias Agronomicas, UNESP, Botucatu – SP. A resistencia a penetracao foi mensurada utilizando-se a UMAS (Unidade Movel de Amostragem de Solo), desenvolvida pelo Nucleo de Ensaio de Maquinas e Pneus Agroflorestais, (NEMPA). A UMAS esta equipada com uma celula de carga e um potenciometro, um receptor GPS, um penetrometro hidraulico-eletronico. Os dados foram analisados no software geoestatistico GS+. Todas as faixas de profundidade apresentaram forte grau de dependencia espacial, com excecao do 0-20 cm no Nitossolo vermelho , cujo grau foi moderado. Os maiores valores de indice de cone foram encontrados no Latossolo vermelho . O melhor ajuste do semivariograma ocorreu no solo argiloso, na faixa de 0 a 20 cm. Palavras–chave : Compactacao. Areas de descanso do solo. Variabilidade CONE INDEX A RED LATOSSO AND A RED NITOSOL FALOW AREAS ABSTRACT In an attempt to restore the chemical, physical and biological soil the practice of leaving fields fallow is found by farmers. But the lack of soil cover with some vegetation or even with legume root help to the disruption of compacted layers can facilitate the improvement of soil conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cone index of two types of soil, an Dystrophic red and Latosol red. The resistance data were collected in two areas belonging to three growing seasons, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, UNESP, Botucatu – SP. The penetration resistance was measured using the MUSS (Mobile Unit Soil Sampling) test developed by the Center for Agro Machinery and Tyres (NEMPA). The NUSS is equipped with load cell and potentiometer, a GPS, a hydraulic-electronic penetrometer. The collected data were treated with the penetrometer and penetrometer and analyzed the geostatistical software GS +. All tracks of depth showed strong degree of spatial dependence, except for the 0-20 cm in Red Alfisol, whose degree was moderate; The highest values of cone index were found in Latosso red. the best fit of the semivariogran occurred in the cly soil in the range 0-20cm. Keywords : compactation, rest area soil, variability INDICE DE CONO DE UN LATOSUELO ROJO Y UN NITOSUELO ROJO EN AREAS DE POUSIO RESUMEN En el intento de restablecer las propiedades quimicas, fisicas y biologicas del suelo las practicas de dejar areas en pousio, es opcion encontrada por agricultores. Mas la falta de cobertura del suelo con alguna vegetacion o incluso leguminosa con sistema radicular que ayudan en el rompimiento de las camadas compactadas puede facilitar la mejoria de las condiciones del suelo. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el indice de cono de dos tipos de suelo: Latosuelo rojo (Lv) y un Nitosuelo rojo (Nv). Los datos de resistencia fueron recolectados en dos areas pertenecientes a la Fazenda Experimental Lageado, Faculdade de Ciencias Agronomicas, UNESP, Botucatu – SP. La resistencia a la infiltracion fue mensurada utilizandose a UMAS (Unidade Movel de Amostragem de Solo), desarrollada por el Nucleo de Ensaio de Maquinas e Pneus Agroflorestais, (NEMPA). UMAS esta equipada con una celula de carga y un potenciometro, un receptor GPS, un penetrometro hidraulico-electronico. Los datos fueron analizados en el software geoestadistico GS+. Todas las fajas de profundidad presentaron fuerte grado de dependencia espacial, con excepcion del 0-20cm en el Nitosuelolo rojo, cuyo grado fue moderado. Los mayores valores de indice de cono fueron encontrados en el Latosuelo rojo. El mejor ajuste del semivariograma ocurrio en el suelo argiloso, en el intervalo entre 0 a 20 cm. Palabras–clave : Compactacion. Areas de descanso del solo, variabilidad. INDICE DE CONO DE UN LATOSUELO ROJO Y UN NITOSUELO ROJO EN AREAS DE POUSIO RESUMEN En el intento de restablecer las propiedades quimicas, fisicas y biologicas del suelo las practicas de dejar areas en pousio, es opcion encontrada por agricultores. Mas la falta de cobertura del suelo con alguna vegetacion o incluso leguminosa con sistema radicular que ayudan en el rompimiento de las camadas compactadas puede facilitar la mejoria de las condiciones del suelo. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar el indice de cono de dos tipos de suelo: Latosuelo rojo (Lv) y un Nitosuelo rojo (Nv). Los datos de resistencia fueron recolectados en dos areas pertenecientes a la Fazenda Experimental Lageado, Faculdade de Ciencias Agronomicas, UNESP, Botucatu – SP. La resistencia a la infiltracion fue mensurada utilizandose a UMAS (Unidade Movel de Amostragem de Solo), desarrollada por el Nucleo de Ensaio de Maquinas e Pneus Agroflorestais, (NEMPA). UMAS esta equipada con una celula de carga y un potenciometro, un receptor GPS, un penetrometro hidraulico-electronico. Los datos fueron analizados en el software geoestadistico GS+. Todas las fajas de profundidad presentaron fuerte grado de dependencia espacial, con excepcion del 0-20cm en el Nitosuelolo rojo , cuyo grado fue moderado. Los mayores valores de indice de cono fueron encontrados en el Latosuelo rojo . El mejor ajuste del semivariograma ocurrio en el suelo argiloso, en el intervalo entre 0 a 20 cm. Palabras–clave : Compactacion. Areas de descanso del solo, variabilidad.

Éder Aparecido Garcia

Papers

Heating value of eucalypt wood grown on SRC for energy production

Chemical analysis of wood with bark in short rotation forestry systems

Exotic palms threatens native palms: a risk to plant biodiversity of atlantic forest

Índice de cone de um latossolo vermelho e um nitossolo vermelho em áreas de pousio