ion step follows the decarboxylation, which is consistent with the deuterium isotopic effects observed for thymine 7-hydroxylase which indicate that an irreversible step (or steps) occurs prior to the C-H bond breaking.395 It has also been shown for prolyl 4-hydroxylase that a substrate-derived radical is generated in the reaction, which is consistent with a rebound mechanism.437 It is important to point out that no oxygen intermediate (i.e., bridged superoxo or oxo-ferryl) has been observed for any R-KGdependent enzyme. This warrants future theoretical and experimental study. A detailed molecular mechanism has been proposed for IPNS based on spectroscopic and crystallographic studies.422 Resting IPNS/FeII is also 6C and thus relatively stable toward dioxygen. Substrate ACV binds directly to FeII IPNS through its thiolate group, providing an open coordination position at the FeII. O2 can then react to form an FeIII-superoxo intermediate. This intermediate is suggested422 to perform the first hydrogen-atom abstraction step and close the â-lactam ring, resulting in the formation of the first water molecule and generating an FeIVdO-II intermediate, which completes the second ringclosure process by hydrogen-atom abstraction forming a thiazolidine ring. Previously proposed mechanisms of ACCO involved direct binding of cosubstrate ascorbate to the iron before O2 as part of the oxygen activation process.438,439 The EPR and ESEEM studies of the NO complex of ACCO suggested a quite different molecular mechanism for ACCO.435 An FeIII-superoxo intermediate is proposed. Whether it is preceded by a 6C f 5C process with substrate binding is presently under study.440 This intermediate is thought to initiate a radical process by single hydrogen-atom abstraction or electron-coupled proton transfer (PT)ion or electron-coupled proton transfer (PT) from the bound amino group. The resulting substrate radical may undergo spontaneous conversion into products. The role of cosubstrate ascorbate is proposed to reduce the toxic peroxo byproduct to water. Alternatively, the two-electron reduction of FeIIIsuperoxo by the cosubstrate ascorbate could result in an FeIVdO-II intermediate which initiates the radical reaction.435 4. Rieske-Type Dioxygenases Biochemical Characterization. The Rieske ironsulfur center is a two iron-two sulfur cluster ([2Fe2S]) which has a 2His (on one iron), 2Cys (on the other iron) coordination environment, instead of the 4Cys present in plant ferredoxins. It plays a key role in the electron transport pathway in membranebound cytochrome complexes as well as in some dioxygenases.441 The latter are mainly comprised of two protein components: a reductase containing flavin and a ferredoxin [2Fe-2S], and a terminal oxygenase containing a Rieske [2Fe-2S] cluster and a non-heme iron active site.442 Except for the recently reported alkene monooxygenase that has a binuclear iron site in its terminal oxygenase,10 most of the Rieske-type oxygenases have a mononuclear iron site, which is believed to be the site of dioxygen activation and substrate oxygenation.442,443 The majority of the Rieske-type mononuclear non-heme oxygenases form a family of enzymes which are aromatic-ring-hydroxylating dioxygenases. These catalyze the regioand stereospecific cis-dihydroxylation of an aromatic ring using dioxygen and NAD(P)H (Table 1). Examples include benzene dioxygenase (BDO, EC 1.14.12.3),444 phthalate dioxygenase (PDO, EC 1.14.12.7),445 toluene dioxygenase (EC 1.14.12.11),446 and naphthalene 1,2-dioxygenase (NDO, EC 1.14.12.12),447 which initiate the aerobic degradation of aromatic compounds in the soil bacteria and are targets for bioengineering in bioremediation. This step is the first step in the pathway that ultimately leads to ring cleavage by the intraand extradiol dioxygenases (sections II.B.2 and II.C.1).443 Besides these bacterial dioxygenases, other Rieske-type mononuclear non-heme oxygenases include anthranilate 1,2-dioxygenase (EC 1.14.12.1),448 which deaminates and decarboxylates the substrate to produce catechol; chlorophenylacetate 3,4-dioxygenase (EC 1.14.2.13),449 which converts substrate to catechol with chloride elimination; and 4-methoxybenzoate O-demethylase (putidamonooxin),450 which catalyzes the conversion of 4-methoxybenzoic acid to 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and formaldehyde. The reductase component is usually a monomer (MW ) 12-15 kDa) and utilizes flavin to mediate ET from the two-electron donor NAD(P)H to the oneelectron acceptor [2Fe-2S] cluster and is specific to each terminal oxygenase; other electron donors do not support efficient oxygenation.442 The crystal structure of phthalate dioxygenase reductase is available.451 The terminal oxygenases are large protein aggregates (MW ) 150-200 kDa) containing either multiples of R subunits (BDO R2, PDO R4) or an equimolar combination of R and â subunits (toluene dioxygenase R2â2, NDO R3â3). The R subunits contain a Rieske [2Fe-2S] cluster and a catalytic non-heme FeII center. â subunits do not seem to be involved in the catalytic function (vide infra). Kinetics. Steady-state kinetic studies coupled with various rapid reaction studies of the partial reactions of PDO allowed Ballou et al. to propose a kinetic scheme (Scheme 15).443 On the basis of steady state 278 Chemical Reviews, 2000, Vol. 100, No. 1 Solomon et al.

Geometric and Electronic Structure/Function Correlations in Non-Heme Iron Enzymes

1-Phenylazo-2-hydroxynaphthol (Sudan I, C.I. Solvent Yellow 14) is a liver and urinary bladder carcinogen in mammals. We compared the ability of hepatic microsomal samples from different species including human to metabolize Sudan I. Comparison between experimental animals and human cytochromes P450 (CYP) is essential for the extrapolation of animal carcinogenicity data to assess human health risk. Human microsomes generated the pattern of Sudan I metabolites reproducing that formed by hepatic microsomes of rats. Using hepatic microsomes of rats pretreated with specific CYP inducers, microsomes from Baculovirus-transfected insect cells expressing recombinant human CYP enzymes, purified CYP enzymes, and selective CYP inhibitors, we found that rat CYP1A1 and recombinant human CYP1A1 are the most efficient enzymes metabolizing Sudan I. Microsomes from livers (the target of Sudan I carcinogenicity) of different human donors were used to estimate whether authentic human CYPs oxidize Sudan I. Using Western blot analysis and NH(2)-terminal sequencing, we were able to detect and quantify CYP1A1 in human hepatic microsomes. The sequence of nine amino acids of the protein band cross-reacting with antirat CYP1A1 in human microsomes, LFPISMSAT, matched the sequence of human CYP1A1 perfectly (residues 2-10). CYP1A1 expression levels varied significantly among the different human microsomes (0.04-2.4 pmol/mg protein), and constituted <0.6% of the total hepatic CYP complement. All of the human hepatic microsomal samples oxidized Sudan I to C-hydroxymetabolites. Moreover, using the nuclease P1-enhanced version of the (32)P-postlabeling assay, we found that human microsomes were competent in activating Sudan I to form adducts with DNA. The role of specific CYP enzymes in the human hepatic microsomal metabolism was investigated by correlating the CYP-catalytic activities (or CYP contents) in each microsomal sample with the levels of individual metabolites and/or Sudan I-DNA adducts formed by the same microsomes, and by examining the effects of agents that can inhibit specific CYP in Sudan I metabolism. On the basis of these studies, we attribute most of Sudan I metabolism in human microsomes to CYP1A1, but participation of CYP3A4 cannot be ruled out. These results, the first report on the metabolism of Sudan I by human CYP enzymes, strongly suggest a carcinogenic potency of this rodent carcinogen for humans.

https://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/62/20/5678.full.pdf

Sudan I Is a Potential Carcinogen for Humans Evidence for Its Metabolic Activation and Detoxication by Human Recombinant Cytochrome P450 1A1 and Liver Microsomes

Cyclobutanones and Cyclobutenones in Nature and in Synthesis [New Synthetic Methods(71)]

This chapter focuses on the physiological and pathological chemistry of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is a simple molecule, consisting of single oxygen bonded to one nitrogen atom. Mammalian cells were discovered to produce nitric oxide (NO) as a short-lived intercellular messenger. The physiological implications continue to rapidly expand and have so far implicated nitric oxide in the regulation of blood pressure, platelet adhesion, neutrophil aggregation, as well as synaptic plasticity in brain. Nitric oxide and its secondary oxidants are also major cytotoxic agents produced by activated macrophages and neutrophils. This chapter begins with a discussion on why does nitric oxide have an unpaired electron. The chapter also discusses why half-life of nitric oxide is so short in vivo . It further explains concepts related to chemistry of nitric oxide and related nitrogen oxides. The chapter also describes handling and detection of nitric oxide. An overview of pathological implications of tyrosine nitration is also presented in this chapter. The chapter elaborates, in detail, the reactions with trace metal contaminants. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the chemistry of nitric oxide reacting with superoxide.

1 – The Physiological and Pathological Chemistry of Nitric Oxide

The hydrolysis of potassium organotrifluoroborate (RBF3K) reagents to the corresponding boronic acids (RB(OH)2) has been studied in the context of their application in Suzuki–Miyaura coupling. The “slow release” strategy in such SM couplings is only viable if there is an appropriate gearing of the hydrolysis rate of the RBF3K reagent with the rate of catalytic turnover. In such cases, the boronic acid RB(OH)2 does not substantially accumulate, thereby minimizing side reactions such as oxidative homocoupling and protodeboronation. The study reveals that the hydrolysis rates (THF, H2O, Cs2CO3, 55 °C) depend on a number of variables, resulting in complex solvolytic profiles with some RBF3K reagents. For example, those based on p-F-phenyl, naphthyl, furyl, and benzyl moieties are found to require acid catalysis for efficient hydrolysis. This acid–base paradox assures their slow hydrolysis under basic Suzuki–Miyaura coupling conditions. However, partial phase-splitting of the THF/H2O induced by the Cs2CO3, res...

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Organotrifluoroborate hydrolysis: boronic acid release mechanism and an acid-base paradox in cross-coupling

Stable carbocations. Part 267. Pagodane dication, a unique 2.pi.-aromatic cyclobutanoid system

Isotopic hydronium ions D/sub 2/H/sup 17/O/sup +/ and DH/sub 2//sup 17/O/sup +/ in 1:1 (molar) HF:SbF/sub 5//SO/sub 2/ and DF:SbF/sub 2/SO/sub 2/ solutions, respectively, at -15/sup 0/C undergo slow hydrogen-deuterium exchange as monitored by /sup 17/O NMR spectroscopy. The rate of such exchange increases with the increase in the acidity of the fluoroantimonic acid medium (1:2 molar composition). The previously observed lack of exchange of isotopic hydronium ions in the somewhat weaker Magic Acid, FSO/sub 3/H:SbF/sub 5/, medium (H/sub 0/ approx. -21.5) suggests that in the stronger HF:SbF/sub 5/ medium (H/sub 0/ approx. -25 to -28), the exchange occurs through the intermediacy of protonated hydronium dication. Consequently, the structure and stability of protonated hydronium dication has been probed by ab initio theory. The T/sub d/ symmetry structure was found to be the minimum energy structure at the HF/6.31G* level. At the HF/6.31G* level this structure is thermodynamically unstable (dissociation preferred by 59.2 kcal/mol), it seems to have significant kinetic stability (deprotonation barrier 39.4 kcal/mol). 20 references, 1 table.

Considered as onium ions. 31. Protonated hydronium dication, H4O2+. Hydrogen-deuterium exchange of Dd2H17 O+ in HF-SbF5 and DH217O+ in DF-SbF5 and theoretical calculations

Superelectrophilic nitration of deactivated aromatics with NO2Cl−3MXn complexes in aprotic nonpolar solvents such as CH2Cl2 makes it possible to obtain the corresponding nitro derivatives in good to almost quantitative yields under mild conditions.

Chemistry of superacids: 35. NO2Cl−3Mx n systems: Superelectrophilic aprotic nitrating agents for deactivated aromatics

Long‐Lived Cyclopropylcarbinyl Cations

It is known that 1-naphthol, as a result of superelectrophilic (dicationic) activation in superacid media, is able to react with such deactivated aromatic compound as o-dichlorobenzene to give 4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-tetralone (2), which is a highly valuable intermediate in the synthesis of the antidepressant, sertraline (1) and other useful derivatives. However, the analogous reactivity of 2-naphthol and a variety of naphthalenediols towards o-dichlorobenzene has not been investigated thus far, although the corresponding tetralones, bearing dichlorophenyl moiety, could be of great pharmacochemical interest. In present work, we disclose that 1,5-, 1,6-, and 1,7- naphthalenediols (6a-c) react smoothly with o-dichlorobenzene in the presence of an excess of aluminum chloride or aluminum bromide to give the pairs of isomeric 4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- and 4-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)- 5-, 6-, and 7-hydroxy-1-tetralones (10a-c and 11a-c) in high overall yields. 2-Naphthol and 2,7-naphthalenediol (6d) exhibited comparatively lower reactivity, which however was sufficient to obtain the corresponding dichlorophenyl-2-tetralones in moderate yields. The mechanism of these reactions involving superelectrophilic dicationic or even tricationic intermediates, is discussed.

G. K. S. Prakash

Papers

Stable carbocations. Part 267. Pagodane dication, a unique 2.pi.-aromatic cyclobutanoid system

Considered as onium ions. 31. Protonated hydronium dication, H4O2+. Hydrogen-deuterium exchange of Dd2H17 O+ in HF-SbF5 and DH217O+ in DF-SbF5 and theoretical calculations

Chemistry of superacids: 35. NO2Cl−3Mx n systems: Superelectrophilic aprotic nitrating agents for deactivated aromatics

Long‐Lived Cyclopropylcarbinyl Cations

Condensation of 2-Naphthol and Naphthalenediols with o-Dichlorobenzene in the Presence of Aluminum Halides