The literature on interference in the Stroop Color-Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400 studies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set of 18 reliable empirical finding is isolated that must be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions are summarized and evaluated in view of this critical evidence and the 2 major candidate theories ―relative speed of processing and automaticity of reading― are found to be wanting. It is concluded that recent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the relevant dimensions are likely to be more sucessful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a single bottleneck in attention

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Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review.

Population-based epidemiologic studies have uncovered the high prevalence and wide severity spectrum of undiagnosed obstructive sleep apnea, and have consistently found that even mild obstructive sleep apnea is associated with significant morbidity. Evidence from methodologically strong cohort studies indicates that undiagnosed obstructive sleep apnea, with or without symptoms, is independently associated with increased likelihood of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, stroke, daytime sleepiness, motor vehicle accidents, and diminished quality of life. Strategies to decrease the high prevalence and associated morbidity of obstructive sleep apnea are critically needed. The reduction or elimination of risk factors through public health initiatives with clinical support holds promise. Potentially modifiable risk factors considered in this review include overweight and obesity, alcohol, smoking, nasal congestion, and estrogen depletion in menopause. Data suggest that obstructive sleep apnea is associated with all these factors, but at present the only intervention strategy supported with adequate evidence is weight loss. A focus on weight control is especially important given the expanding epidemic of overweight and obesity in the United States. Primary care providers will be central to clinical approaches for addressing the burden and the development of cost-effective case-finding strategies and feasible treatment for mild obstructive sleep apnea warrants high priority.

Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea: a population health perspective.

To understand the endogenous components of the event-related brain potential (ERP), we must use data about the components' antecedent conditions to form hypotheses about the information-processing function of the underlying brain activity These hypotheses, in turn, generate testable predictions about the consequences of the component We review the application of this approach to the analysis of the P300 component The amplitude of the P300 is controlled multiplicatively by the subjective probability and the task relevance of the eliciting events, whereas its latency depends on the duration of stimulus evaluation These and other factors suggest that the P300 is a manifestation of activity occurring whenever one's model of the environment must be revised Tests of three predictions based on this “context updating” model are reviewed Verleger's critique is based on a misconstrual of the model as well as a partial and misleading reading of the relevant literature

Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating

Recent years have seen an explosion of research on the N2 component of the event-related potential, a negative wave peaking between 200 and 350 ms after stimulus onset. This research has focused on the influence of ‘‘cognitive control,’’ a concept that covers strategic monitoring and control of motor responses. However, rich research traditions focus on attention and novelty or mismatch as determinants of N2 amplitude. We focus on paradigms that elicit N2 components with an anterior scalp distribution, namely, cognitive control, novelty, and sequential matching, and argue that the anterior N2 should be divided into separate control- and mismatch-related subcomponents. We also argue that the oddball N2 belongs in the family of attention-related N2 components that, in the visual modality, have a posterior scalp distribution. We focus on the visual modality for which components with frontocentral and more posterior scalp distributions can be readily distinguished.

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Influence of cognitive control and mismatch on the N2 component of the ERP: a review.

Neurophysiological and behavioral measures were obtained from 32 senescent (28--34 mo) and 32 mature adult (10--16 mo) rats. Extracellularly recorded synaptic responses were obtained from electrodes chronically implanted in the fascia dentata and perforant path. The rats were first tested on a circular platform, which favored the use of spatial cues for its solution, and the senescent rats were shown to exhibit poorer memory for the rewarded place. When granule cell synaptic responses were recorded after a single session of very brief high-frequency stimulation, the amount of elevation and time course of decline were equivalent between age groups. Af ter three repetitions, however, the young rats maintained the increased synaptic strength for at least 14 days, whereas the old rats declined after the first session. The amount of synaptic enhancement was statistically correlated with the ability to perform the circular platform task both within and between groups. Furthermore, the aftereffects of the high-frequency stimulation selectively impaired the old rats' spontaneous alternation behavior on a T-maze. Certain other neurophysiological and electroencephalographic measures did not distinguish between age groups. The results are discussed in terms of the synaptic theory of memory formation and of their relevance to the aging process.

Memory deficits associated with senescence: a neurophysiological and behavioral study in the rat.

ContextUse of nonpharmacological behavioral therapy has been suggested for
treatment of chronic primary insomnia, but well-blinded, placebo-controlled
trials demonstrating effective behavioral therapy for sleep-maintenance insomnia
are lacking.ObjectiveTo test the efficacy of a hybrid cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
compared with both a first-generation behavioral treatment and a placebo therapy
for treating primary sleep-maintenance insomnia.Design and SettingRandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial conducted
at a single academic medical center, with recruitment from January 1995 to
July 1997.PatientsSeventy-five adults (n = 35 women; mean age, 55.3 years) with chronic
primary sleep-maintenance insomnia (mean duration of symptoms, 13.6 years).InterventionsPatients were randomly assigned to receive CBT (sleep education, stimulus
control, and time-in-bed restrictions; n = 25), progressive muscle relaxation
training (RT; n = 25), or a quasi-desensitization (placebo) treatment (n =
25). Outpatient treatment lasted 6 weeks, with follow-up conducted at 6 months.Main Outcome MeasuresObjective (polysomnography) and subjective (sleep log) measures of total
sleep time, middle and terminal wake time after sleep onset (WASO), and sleep
efficiency; questionnaire measures of global insomnia symptoms, sleep-related
self-efficacy, and mood.ResultsCognitive behavioral therapy produced larger improvements across the
majority of outcome measures than did RT or placebo treatment. For example,
sleep logs showed that CBT-treated patients achieved an average 54% reduction
in their WASO whereas RT-treated and placebo-treated patients, respectively,
achieved only 16% and 12% reductions in this measure. Recipients of CBT also
showed a greater normalization of sleep and subjective symptoms than did the
other groups with an average sleep time of more than 6 hours, middle WASO
of 26.6 minutes, and sleep efficiency of 85.1%. In contrast, RT-treated patients
continued to report a middle WASO of 43.3 minutes and sleep efficiency of
78.8%.ConclusionsOur results suggest that CBT represents a viable intervention for primary
sleep-maintenance insomnia. This treatment leads to clinically significant
sleep improvements within 6 weeks and these improvements appear to endure
through 6 months of follow-up.

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/193729/joc01726.pdf

Cognitive behavioral therapy for treatment of chronic primary insomnia: a randomized controlled trial.

Design: We compared EEG frequency spectra from REM and NREM sleep in PPI subjects subtyped as subjective insomnia sufferers (those with relatively long total sleep time and relative underestimation of sleep time compared with PSG), and objective insomnia sufferers (those with relatively short PSG total sleep time) with EEG frequency spectra in normals. We also studied the correlation between these indices and the degree of underestimation of sleep. Further, we determined the degree to which sleep EEG indexes related to sleep complaints. Setting: Duke University Medical Center Sleep Laboratory. Participants: Normal (N=20), subjective insomnia (N=12), and objective insomnia (N=18) subjects. Interventions: N/A Measurements and Results: Lower delta and greater alpha, sigma, and beta NREM EEG activity were found in the patients with subjective insomnia but not those with objective insomnia, compared with the normal subjects. These results were robust to changes in the subtyping criteria. No effects were found for REM spectral indexes. Less delta non- REM EEG activity predicted greater deviation between subjective and PSG estimates of sleep time across all subjects. For the subjective insomnia subjects, diminished low-frequency and elevated higher frequency non- REM EEG activity was associated with their sleep complaints. Conclusions: NREM EEG frequency spectral indexes appear to be physiologic correlates of sleep complaints in patients with subjective insomnia and may reflect heightened arousal during sleep.

NREM sleep EEG frequency spectral correlates of sleep complaints in primary insomnia subtypes.

Previous findings suggest that some who report insomnia sleep well, whereas some noncomplaining individuals sleep rather poorly. This study was conducted to determine if mood, anxiety, and sleep-related beliefs might relate to perceived sleep disturbance. Thirty-two women and 32 men (aged 40-79 years) with primary insomnia and an aged-matched sample of 61 normal sleepers (31 women, 30 men) completed 6 nocturnal sleep recordings, as well as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Trait portion of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-2), and the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes About Sleep Questionnaire. Sleep and interview data were used to subdivide the majority of the sample (n = 108) into objective normal sleepers and subjective insomnia sufferers who seemingly slept well and subjective normal sleepers and objective insomnia sufferers who slept poorly. The 2 subjective subgroups showed the most marked differences on most of the psychometric measures. The findings suggest that the psychological factors scrutinized in this study may mediate sleep satisfaction and/or predict objective sleep difficulties.

Insomnia and the eye of the beholder: are there clinical markers of objective sleep disturbances among adults with and without insomnia complaints?

Study objectives This study was conducted to exam the degree to which cognitive-behavioral insomnia therapy (CBT) reduces dysfunctional beliefs about sleep and to determine if such cognitive changes correlate with sleep improvements. Design The study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled design in which participants were randomized to CBT, progressive muscle relaxation training or a sham behavioral intervention. Each treatment was provided in 6 weekly, 30-60-minute individual therapy sessions. Setting The sleep disorders center of a large university medical center. Participants Seventy-five individuals (ages 40 to 80 years of age) who met strict criteria for persistent primary sleep-maintenance insomnia were enrolled in this trial. Interventions N/A. Measurements and results Participants completed the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes About Sleep (DBAS) Scale, as well as other assessment procedures before treatment, shortly after treatment, and at a six-month follow-up. Items composing a factor-analytically derived DBAS short form (DBAS-SF) were then used to compare treatment groups across time points. Results showed CBT produced larger changes on the DBAS-SF than did the other treatments, and these changes endured through the follow-up period. Moreover, these cognitive changes were correlated with improvements noted on both objective and subjective measures of insomnia symptoms, particularly within the CBT group. Conclusions CBT is effective for reducing dysfunctional beliefs about sleep and such changes are associated with other positive outcomes in insomnia treatment.

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Does cognitive-behavioral insomnia therapy alter dysfunctional beliefs about sleep?

https://www.i-doser.com/binauralsandmood.pdf

Gail R. Marsh

Papers

Cognitive behavioral therapy for treatment of chronic primary insomnia: a randomized controlled trial.

NREM sleep EEG frequency spectral correlates of sleep complaints in primary insomnia subtypes.

Insomnia and the eye of the beholder: are there clinical markers of objective sleep disturbances among adults with and without insomnia complaints?

Does cognitive-behavioral insomnia therapy alter dysfunctional beliefs about sleep?

Binaural Auditory Beats Affect Vigilance Performance and Mood