We present the science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems, targeting an evolution in technology, that might lead to impacts and benefits reaching into most areas of society. This roadmap was developed within the framework of the European Graphene Flagship and outlines the main targets and research areas as best understood at the start of this ambitious project. We provide an overview of the key aspects of graphene and related materials (GRMs), ranging from fundamental research challenges to a variety of applications in a large number of sectors, highlighting the steps necessary to take GRMs from a state of raw potential to a point where they might revolutionize multiple industries. We also define an extensive list of acronyms in an effort to standardize the nomenclature in this emerging field.

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Science and technology roadmap for graphene, related two-dimensional crystals, and hybrid systems

The primary aim of this article is to provide an overview of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) detected in the environment, wildlife, and humans, and recommend clear, specific, and descriptive terminology, names, and acronyms for PFASs. The overarching objective is to unify and harmonize communication on PFASs by offering terminology for use by the global scientific, regulatory, and industrial communities. A particular emphasis is placed on long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, substances related to the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids, and substances intended as alternatives to the use of the long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids or their precursors. First, we define PFASs, classify them into various families, and recommend a pragmatic set of common names and acronyms for both the families and their individual members. Terminology related to fluorinated polymers is an important aspect of our classification. Second, we provide a brief description of the 2 main production processes, electrochemical fluorination and telomerization, used for introducing perfluoroalkyl moieties into organic compounds, and we specify the types of byproducts (isomers and homologues) likely to arise in these processes. Third, we show how the principal families of PFASs are interrelated as industrial, environmental, or metabolic precursors or transformation products of one another. We pay particular attention to those PFASs that have the potential to be converted, by abiotic or biotic environmental processes or by human metabolism, into long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic or sulfonic acids, which are currently the focus of regulatory action. The Supplemental Data lists 42 families and subfamilies of PFASs and 268 selected individual compounds, providing recommended names and acronyms, and structural formulas, as well as Chemical Abstracts Service registry numbers. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2011;7:513–541. © 2011 SETAC

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Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: Terminology, classification, and origins

http://www.beauty-review.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Perfluoroalkyl-acids-a-review-of-monitoring-and-toxicological-findings.pdf

Perfluoroalkyl Acids: A Review of Monitoring and Toxicological Findings

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Water Analysis: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues

Fundamental and applied research in chemistry and biology benefits from opportunities provided by droplet-based microfluidic systems. These systems enable the miniaturization of reactions by compartmentalizing reactions in droplets of femoliter to microliter volumes. Compartmentalization in droplets provides rapid mixing of reagents, control of the timing of reactions on timescales from milliseconds to months, control of interfacial properties, and the ability to synthesize and transport solid reagents and products. Droplet-based microfluidics can help to enhance and accelerate chemical and biochemical screening, protein crystallization, enzymatic kinetics, and assays. Moreover, the control provided by droplets in microfluidic devices can lead to new scientific methods and insights.

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Reactions in Droplets in Microfluidic Channels

This study was conducted to elucidate the time- and dose-response relationships of long-term, low-level 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (DCB) inhalation exposure to nasal tumor induction in rats. Male Crl:CD BR rats were exposed 6 hours per day, 5 days week to 0, 0.1, 0.3, or 1.0 ppm DCB for up to 19 months; some rats were sacrificed at various time intervals during the study. After 19 months of exposure, surviving rats were held without treatment for an additional 5 months. Tissues from the respiratory tract, lymph nodes, and brain were evaluated microscopically. Compound-related non-neoplastic lesions were observed in the nasal cavities of rats in the 1.0 ppm group after three months of exposure and in the other two groups after twelve months of exposure. The lesions were progressive in severity and frequency. A statistically significant increase in benign nasal tumors (adenomas) occurred in rats from all three DCB-exposed groups. The adenomas occurred in the respiratory region of the nasal cavity and were first observed in the 1.0 ppm group at study month 10. Malignant nasal tumors occurred in the olfactory region of the nasal cavity and were statistically increased at 1.0 ppm.

Nasal tumors in rats following long-term inhalation exposure to 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (dcb)

This chapter covers additional aliphatic and aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in their structures and follows those discussed in Chapter 59.



Pyridine and its many modified structures are described because they serve as a backbone for many industrial compounds.



Several pesticides and herbicides, as well as their precursors, are included: the pyridinethiones; the substituted uracil herbicides—bromacil, lenacil, and terbacil; the quaternary herbicides–paraquat, diquat, and difenzoquat; the s-triazines—atrazine and propazine; and other triazine herbicides, such as ametryn, prometryne, and simazine.



Simple nitrogen compounds such as azides, nitrosamines, and hydrazines are described because of important toxicological effects they can produce.



Finally, two important industrial solvents, dimethylacetamide and dimethylformamide, are included because they have a long history of use and have been well studied in the occupational environment.



Other than the pyridine series of chemicals and the nitroso compounds, most of the chemicals reviewed here include significant new information since the last chapter review.


Keywords:

Alkylpyridines;
aquatic toxicity;
dimethylacetamide;
dimethylformamide;
genetic toxicity;
herbicides;
hydrazines;
industrial solvents;
nitrosamines;
pesticides

Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds

1,4-Butanediol is a clear, slightly viscous liquid with a low vapor pressure used in manufacturing polyester glycols and polyurethanes. The material has a low order of acute inhalation toxicity with a 4-h ALC of 15 mg/l in male rats. In the repeated dose study, groups of 10 male Crl:CD rats were exposed nose-only, 6 h/day, 5 days/wk for 2 wk to aerosol concentrations of either 0, 0.20, 1.7, or 5.2 mg/l. Rats were given pathological, urinalysis, and clinical chemical examinations after the last (tenth) exposure and after a 2-wk recovery period. No adverse effects were observed in rats exposed to either 0.20 or 1.1 mg/l. Rats exposed to 5.2 mg/l had depressed body weight evident after the third exposure. After 10 exposures, these rats had increased erythrocyte count and hematocrits and decreased serum cholesterol concentrations. Pathological examination showed slight atrophy of lymphoid cells in the thymus and depressed mean heart weights in these rats. No adverse effects were observed after 2 wk of...

Inhalation Toxicology of 1,4-Butanediol

Dimethyl sulfate (DMS; CAS No. 77–78) is a colorless, oily liquid which is used as a chemical intermediate and as a reactant in producing polyurethane resins. In this study, groups of pregnant Crl:CD®BR rats were exposed, nose-only, to either 0.1, 0.7 or 1.5 ppm DMS by inhalation for 6 hr/day from Days 7 through 16 of gestation (day in which copulation plug was detected was designated Day 1G). A control group of pregnant rats was exposed simultaneously to air only. All female rats were euthanized on Day 22G and the fetuses were examined. A suppression of both food consumption and the rate of body weight gain was seen in the 0.7 and 1.5 ppm groups. No unusual clinical signs were seen in rats exposed to DMS. None of the reproductive parameters was altered in any of the groups and no statistically significant fetal effects were detected. DMS is not a developmental toxin in the rat following inhalation exposures up to 1.5 ppm during the period of major organogenesis.

Developmental toxicity of dimethyl sulfate by inhalation in the rat.

Adiponitrile (ADN) has moderate acute toxicity with an oral LD50 in rats of 100 to 500 mg/kg and a 4-hr LC50 in rats of 1.71 mg/L (vapor plus aerosol). ADN produced slight eye but no skin irritation in rabbits. Repeated exposures by inhalation produced changes in the hematologic profile with effects seen at 100 or 300 mg/m3. The hematologic changes were reversible upon cessation of further inhalation exposures. Dogs fed up to 500 ppm (equivalent to 12-15 mg/kg) showed no effects but 1,000 ppm produced vomiting and nausea which limited further testing at that concentration. ADN was not a genetic toxin, developmental toxin, reproductive toxin nor did it produce an increase in tumors in a 2-yr drinking water study in rats. Human experience reports are limited to one accidental poisoning case and a few skin exposures resulting in transient irritation and inflammation. ADN is rapidly absorbed and excreted by mammals, and is metabolized to some extent although unchanged ADN is readily detected in urine, and does not bioaccumulate.

Gerald L. Kennedy

Papers

Nasal tumors in rats following long-term inhalation exposure to 1,4-dichlorobutene-2 (dcb)

Alkylpyridines and Miscellaneous Organic Nitrogen Compounds

Inhalation Toxicology of 1,4-Butanediol

Developmental toxicity of dimethyl sulfate by inhalation in the rat.

Health and Ecological Effects of Adiponitrile