Astrocytes are specialized glial cells that outnumber neurons by over fivefold. They contiguously tile the entire central nervous system (CNS) and exert many essential complex functions in the healthy CNS. Astrocytes respond to all forms of CNS insults through a process referred to as reactive astrogliosis, which has become a pathological hallmark of CNS structural lesions. Substantial progress has been made recently in determining functions and mechanisms of reactive astrogliosis and in identifying roles of astrocytes in CNS disorders and pathologies. A vast molecular arsenal at the disposal of reactive astrocytes is being defined. Transgenic mouse models are dissecting specific aspects of reactive astrocytosis and glial scar formation in vivo. Astrocyte involvement in specific clinicopathological entities is being defined. It is now clear that reactive astrogliosis is not a simple all-or-none phenomenon but is a finely gradated continuum of changes that occur in context-dependent manners regulated by specific signaling events. These changes range from reversible alterations in gene expression and cell hypertrophy with preservation of cellular domains and tissue structure, to long-lasting scar formation with rearrangement of tissue structure. Increasing evidence points towards the potential of reactive astrogliosis to play either primary or contributing roles in CNS disorders via loss of normal astrocyte functions or gain of abnormal effects. This article reviews (1) astrocyte functions in healthy CNS, (2) mechanisms and functions of reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation, and (3) ways in which reactive astrocytes may cause or contribute to specific CNS disorders and lesions.

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Astrocytes: biology and pathology

Pedagosko i psiholosko testiranje i procjenjivanje spadaju među najvažnije doprinose znanosti o ponasanju nasem drustvu i pružaju temeljna i znacajna poboljsanja u odnosu na ranije postupke. Iako se ne može ustvrditi da su svi testovi dovoljno usavrseni niti da su sva testiranja razborita i korisna, postoji velika kolicina informacija koje ukazuju na ucinkovitost kvalitetnih instrumenata u onim situacijama u kojima je njihovo koristenje potkrijepljeno validacijskim podacima. Pravilna upotreba testova može dovesti do boljih odluka o pojedincima i programima nego sto bi to bio slucaj bez njihovog koristenja, a također i ukazati na put za siri i pravedniji pristup obrazovanju i zaposljavanju. Međutim, losa upotreba testova može dovesti do zamjetne stete nanesene ispitanicima i drugim sudionicima u procesu donosenja odluka na temelju testovnih podataka. Cilj Standarda je promoviranje kvalitetne i eticne upotrebe testova te uspostavljanje osnovice za ocjenu kvalitete postupaka testiranja. Svrha objavljivanja Standarda je uspostavljanje kriterija za evaluaciju testova, provedbe testiranja i posljedica upotrebe testova. Iako bi evaluacija prikladnosti testa ili njegove primjene trebala ovisiti prvenstveno o strucnim misljenjima, Standardi pružaju okvir koji osigurava obuhvacanje svih relevantnih pitanja. Bilo bi poželjno da svi autori, sponzori, nakladnici i korisnici profesionalnih testova usvoje Standarde te da poticu druge da ih također prihvate.

Standards for educational and psychological testing

(1998). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies. Gifted and Talented International: Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 97-98.

Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor analytic studies

The new 2012 Zurich Consensus statement is designed to build on the principles outlined in the previous documents and to develop further conceptual understanding of this problem using a formal consensus-based approach. A detailed description of the consensus process is outlined at the end of this document under the Background section. This document is developed primarily for use by physicians and healthcare professionals who are involved in the care of injured athletes, whether at the recreational, elite or professional level.

/pdf/consensus-statement-on-concussion-in-sport-1b9nytxe0j.pdf

Consensus statement on concussion in sport

This review paper outlines the issues associated with the assessment of executive function (EF) in children and adolescents, and describes the developmental profile of executive processes across childhood At the outset, EF is defined, and cognitive and behavioral impairments associated with executive dysfunction (EDF) are described A developmental model of EF is proposed incorporating four discrete but inter-related executive domains (attentional control, cognitive flexibility, goal setting, and information processing) which operate in an integrative manner to enable “executive control” Characteristics that constitute traditional EF measures are discussed, as are the problems associated with test interpretation The ecological validity of EF tests and neuropsychological assessment procedures are examined, and adjunct methods of measurement are presented to enable a more comprehensive and valid assessment of EF Based on developmental and normative studies, the maturation of executive domains is mapped

Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood.

The project has received financial support from Innlandet Hospital Trust, Norway (grant number 150207) and the Regional Resource Center for Autism, ADHD, Tourette’s syndrome and Narcolepsy, Oslo University Hospital, Norway (grant number 150182).

Distinct patterns of everyday executive function problems distinguish children with Tourette syndrome from children with ADHD or autism spectrum disorders

Concussion pathophysiology: rationale for physical and cognitive rest.

Executive dysfunction is present in children, adolescents, and adults with a wide range of clinical conditions. A growing body of literature has demonstrated the usefulness of rating scales designed to gauge executive functioning in everyday life. In this article, we discuss evidence supporting the use of such rating scales to assess intervention outcome, how they may inform development of interventions, and how comparing rater perspectives can assess awareness of cognitive dysfunction. We provide an example of how an executive function rating scale helped define intervention targets and measured outcomes in a recently published real-world intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder. Rating scales of executive function provide valuable information with respect to treatment planning and assessment of intervention outcome.

Contribution of Rating Scales to Intervention for Executive Dysfunction

Objective To evaluate the evidence regarding (1) factors affecting return to school (RTS) and (2) strategies/accommodations for RTS following a sport-related concussion (SRC) in children and adolescents. Design A systematic review of original studies specifically addressing RTS following concussion in the paediatric and sporting context. Data sources MEDLINE (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), PsycInfo (Ovid) electronic databases and the grey literature OpenGrey, ClinicalTrials.gov and Google Advanced. Eligibility criteria Studies were included if they were original research on RTS following SRC in children aged 5–18 years published in English between 1985 and 2017. Results A total of 180 articles were identified; 17 articles met inclusion criteria. Several factors should be considered for RTS after concussion, including: symptomatology; rest following injury; age/grade; and course load. On RTS after concussion, 17%–73% of students were provided academic accommodations or experienced difficulty with RTS. Students were more likely to obtain academic accommodations in schools with a concussion policy if they had a medical RTS letter and had regular medical follow-up after concussion. Conclusions Schools should have a concussion policy and offer individualised academic accommodations to students recovering from SRC on RTS; a medical letter should be provided to facilitate provision/receipt of academic accommodations; students should have early, regular medical follow-up following SRC to help with RTS and monitor recovery; students may require temporary absence from school after SRC; clinicians should assess risk factors/modifiers that may prolong recovery and require more intensive academic accommodations. PROSPERO registration number CRD42016039184.

https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/bjsports/53/4/250.full.pdf

What factors must be considered in 'return to school' following concussion and what strategies or accommodations should be followed? A systematic review.

Background:Previous research has demonstrated differences in cognitive performance when baseline concussion assessment is performed in a group versus an individual setting. Accurate baseline assessment is imperative when such data are used to make clinical decisions regarding cognitive and symptom recovery after concussion.Hypothesis:The use of similar standardized test administration procedures and test conditions across group and individual settings results in no differences in cognitive performance or symptom reporting.Study Design:Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:A total of 939 participants (aged 5-18 years), including 313 tested individually and 626 tested in a group setting, matched on age, sex, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder status, were administered concussion baseline assessment using the desktop version of the Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing and a new pediatric measure, the Multimodal Assessment of Cognition & Symptoms for Children. Cognitive pe...

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Chris_Vaughan/publication/261748870_Psychometric_Characteristics_of_the_Postconcussion_Symptom_Inventory_in_Children_and_Adolescents/links/53e0d8c70cf2d79877a50717.pdf

Gerard A. Gioia

Papers

Distinct patterns of everyday executive function problems distinguish children with Tourette syndrome from children with ADHD or autism spectrum disorders

Concussion pathophysiology: rationale for physical and cognitive rest.

Contribution of Rating Scales to Intervention for Executive Dysfunction

What factors must be considered in 'return to school' following concussion and what strategies or accommodations should be followed? A systematic review.

The Relation Between Testing Environment and Baseline Performance in Child and Adolescent Concussion Assessment