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Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain—3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging, J. Talairach, P. Tournoux. Georg Thieme Verlag, New York (1988), 122 pp., 130 figs. DM 268

Despite the concern that has been expressed about potential method biases, and the pervasiveness of research settings with the potential to produce them, there is disagreement about whether they really are a problem for researchers in the behavioral sciences. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to explore the current state of knowledge about method biases. First, we explore the meaning of the terms “method” and “method bias” and then we examine whether method biases influence all measures equally. Next, we review the evidence of the effects that method biases have on individual measures and on the covariation between different constructs. Following this, we evaluate the procedural and statistical remedies that have been used to control method biases and provide recommendations for minimizing method bias.

Sources of Method Bias in Social Science Research and Recommendations on How to Control It

Evolutionary psychology is one of many biologically informed approaches to the study of human behavior. Along with cognitive psychologists, evolutionary psychologists propose that much, if not all, of our behavior can be explained by appeal to internal psychological mechanisms. What distinguishes evolutionary psychologists from many cognitive psychologists is the proposal that the relevant internal mechanisms are adaptations—products of natural selection—that helped our ancestors get around the world, survive and reproduce. To understand the central claims of evolutionary psychology we require an understanding of some key concepts in evolutionary biology, cognitive psychology, philosophy of science and philosophy of mind. Philosophers are interested in evolutionary psychology for a number of reasons. For philosophers of science —mostly philosophers of biology—evolutionary psychology provides a critical target. There is a broad consensus among philosophers of science that evolutionary psychology is a deeply flawed enterprise. For philosophers of mind and cognitive science evolutionary psychology has been a source of empirical hypotheses about cognitive architecture and specific components of that architecture. Philosophers of mind are also critical of evolutionary psychology but their criticisms are not as all-encompassing as those presented by philosophers of biology. Evolutionary psychology is also invoked by philosophers interested in moral psychology both as a source of empirical hypotheses and as a critical target.

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Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

The event-related potential (ERP) technique in cognitive neuroscience allows scientists to observe human brain activity that reflects specific cognitive processes. In An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique, Steve Luck offers the first comprehensive guide to the practicalities of conducting ERP experiments in cognitive neuroscience and related fields, including affective neuroscience and experimental psychopathology. The book can serve as a guide for the classroom or the laboratory and as a reference for researchers who do not conduct ERP studies themselves but need to understand and evaluate ERP experiments in the literature. It summarizes the accumulated body of ERP theory and practice, providing detailed, practical advice about how to design, conduct, and interpret ERP experiments, and presents the theoretical background needed to understand why an experiment is carried out in a particular way. Luck focuses on the most fundamental techniques, describing them as they are used in many of the world's leading ERP laboratories. These techniques reflect a long history of electrophysiological recordings and provide an excellent foundation for more advanced approaches. The book also provides advice on the key topic of how to design ERP experiments so that they will be useful in answering questions of broad scientific interest. This reflects the increasing proportion of ERP research that focuses on these broader questions rather than the "ERPology" of early studies, which concentrated primarily on ERP components and methods. Topics covered include the neural origins of ERPs, signal averaging, artifact rejection and correction, filtering, measurement and analysis, localization, and the practicalities of setting up the lab.

/pdf/an-introduction-to-the-event-related-potential-technique-38ksmp4fjp.pdf

An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique

Mental imagery has, until recently, fallen within the purview of philosophy and cognitive psychology. Both enterprises have raised important questions about imagery, but have not made substantial progress in answering them. With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, these questions have become empirically tractable. Neuroimaging studies, combined with other methods (such as studies of brain-damaged patients and of the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation), are revealing the ways in which imagery draws on mechanisms used in other activities, such as perception and motor control. Because of its close relation to these basic processes, imagery is now becoming one of the best understood 'higher' cognitive functions.

/pdf/neural-foundations-of-imagery-3yjg7uvnct.pdf

Neural foundations of imagery.

Visual imagery is used in a wide range of mental activities, ranging from memory to reasoning, and also plays a role in perception proper. The contribution of early visual cortex, specifically Area 17, to visual mental imagery was examined by the use of two convergent techniques. In one, subjects closed their eyes during positron emission tomography (PET) while they visualized and compared properties (for example, relative length) of sets of stripes. The results showed that when people perform this task, Area 17 is activated. In the other, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) was applied to medial occipital cortex before presentation of the same task. Performance was impaired after rTMS compared with a sham control condition; similar results were obtained when the subjects performed the task by actually looking at the stimuli. In sum, the PET results showed that when patterns of stripes are visualized, Area 17 is activated, and the rTMS results showed that such activation underlies information processing.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/284/5411/167.full.pdf

The role of area 17 in visual imagery: convergent evidence from PET and rTMS.

http://webpersonal.uma.es/~DAVILA/fMRI_visual_perception.pdf

Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: an fMRI study.

Preface Chapter 1. Mental imagery and mental representation Chapter 2. Evaluating propositional accounts Chapter 3. Evaluating experiment artifact accounts Chapter 4. Depictive representations in the brain Chapter 5. Visual mental images in the brain: Overview of a theory Chapter 6. Science and mental imager Appendix: Review of neuroimaging studies of visual mental imagery References

The case for mental imagery

Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) from 26 scalp sites were used to investigate whether or not and, if so, the extent to which the brain processes subserving the understanding of imageable written words and line drawings are identical. Sentences were presented one word at a time to 28 undergraduates for comprehension. Each sentence ended with either a written word (regular sentences) or with a line drawing (rebus sentences) that rendered it semantically congruous or semantically incongruous. For half of the subjects regular and rebus sentences were randomly intermixed whereas for the remaining half the regular and rebus sentences were presented in separate blocks (affording within-subject comparisons in both cases). In both presentation formats, words and line drawings generated greater negativity between 325 and 475 msec post-stimulus in ERPs to incongruous relative to congruous sentence endings (i.e., an N400-like effect). While the time course of this negativity was remarkably similar for words and pictures, there were notable differences in their scalp distributions; specifically, the classic N400 effect for words was larger posteriorly than it was for pictures. The congruity effect for pictures but not for words was also associated with a longer duration (lower frequency) negativity over frontal sites. In addition, under the mixed presentation mode, the N400 effect peaked about 30 msec earlier for pictures than for words. All in all, the data suggest that written words and pictures when they terminate sentences are processed similarly, but by at least partially nonoverlapping brain areas.

Giorgio Ganis

Papers

Neural foundations of imagery.

The role of area 17 in visual imagery: convergent evidence from PET and rTMS.

Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: an fMRI study.

The case for mental imagery

The search for “common sense”: An electrophysiological study of the comprehension of words and pictures in reading