Preface. About the Authors. Acknowledgments. 1 Power Amplifier Fundamentals. 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Definition of Power Amplifier Parameters. 1.3 Distortion Parameters. 1.4 Power Match Condition. 1.5 Class of Operation. 1.6 Overview of Semiconductors for PAs. 1.7 Devices for PA. 1.8 Appendix: Demonstration of Useful Relationships. 1.9 References. 2 Power Amplifier Design. 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Design Flow. 2.3 Simplified Approaches. 2.4 The Tuned Load Amplifier. 2.5 Sample Design of a Tuned Load PA. 2.6 References. 3 Nonlinear Analysis for Power Amplifiers. 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Linear vs. Nonlinear Circuits. 3.3 Time Domain Integration. 3.4 Example. 3.5 Solution by Series Expansion. 3.6 The Volterra Series. 3.7 The Fourier Series. 3.8 The Harmonic Balance. 3.9 Envelope Analysis. 3.10 Spectral Balance. 3.11 Large Signal Stability Issue. 3.12 References. 4 Load Pull. 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Passive Source/Load Pull Measurement Systems. 4.3 Active Source/Load Pull Measurement Systems. 4.4 Measurement Test-sets. 4.5 Advanced Load Pull Measurements. 4.6 Source/Load Pull Characterization. 4.7 Determination of Optimum Load Condition. 4.8 Appendix: Construction of Simplified Load Pull Contours through Linear Simulations. 4.9 References. 5 High Efficiency PA Design Theory. 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Power Balance in a PA. 5.3 Ideal Approaches. 5.4 High Frequency Harmonic Tuning Approaches. 5.5 High Frequency Third Harmonic Tuned (Class F). 5.6 High Frequency Second Harmonic Tuned. 5.7 High Frequency Second and Third Harmonic Tuned. 5.8 Design by Harmonic Tuning. 5.9 Final Remarks. 5.10 References. 6 Switched Amplifiers. 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 The Ideal Class E Amplifier. 6.3 Class E Behavioural Analysis. 6.4 Low Frequency Class E Amplifier Design. 6.5 Class E Amplifier Design with 50# Duty-cycle. 6.6 Examples of High Frequency Class E Amplifiers. 6.7 Class E vs. Harmonic Tuned. 6.8 Class E Final Remarks. 6.9 Appendix: Demonstration of Useful Relationships. 6.10 References. 7 High Frequency Class F Power Amplifiers. 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Class F Description Based on Voltage Wave-shaping. 7.3 High Frequency Class F Amplifiers. 7.4 Bias Level Selection. 7.5 Class F Output Matching Network Design. 7.6 Class F Design Examples. 7.7 References. 8 High Frequency Harmonic Tuned Power Amplifiers. 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Theory of Harmonic Tuned PA Design. 8.3 Input Device Nonlinear Phenomena: Theoretical Analysis. 8.4 Input Device Nonlinear Phenomena: Experimental Results. 8.5 Output Device Nonlinear Phenomena. 8.6 Design of a Second HT Power Amplifier. 8.7 Design of a Second and Third HT Power Amplifier. 8.8 Example of 2nd HT GaN PA. 8.9 Final Remarks. 8.10 References. 9 High Linearity in Efficient Power Amplifiers. 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Systems Classification. 9.3 Linearity Issue. 9.4 Bias Point Influence on IMD. 9.5 Harmonic Loading Effects on IMD. 9.6 Appendix: Volterra Analysis Example. 9.7 References. 10 Power Combining. 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Device Scaling Properties. 10.3 Power Budget. 10.4 Power Combiner Classification. 10.5 The T-junction Power Divider. 10.6 Wilkinson Combiner. 10.7 The Quadrature (90 ) Hybrid. 10.8 The 180 Hybrid (Ring Coupler or Rat-race). 10.9 Bus-bar Combiner. 10.10 Other Planar Combiners. 10.11 Corporate Combiners. 10.12 Resonating Planar Combiners. 10.13 Graceful Degradation. 10.14 Matching Properties of Combined PAs. 10.15 Unbalance Issue in Hybrid Combiners. 10.16 Appendix: Basic Properties of Three-port Networks. 10.17 References. 11 The Doherty Power Amplifier. 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Doherty's Idea. 11.3 The Classical Doherty Configuration. 11.4 The 'AB-C' Doherty Amplifier Analysis. 11.5 Power Splitter Sizing. 11.6 Evaluation of the Gain in a Doherty Amplifier. 11.7 Design Example. 11.8 Advanced Solutions. 11.9 References. Index.

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High Efficiency RF and Microwave Solid State Power Amplifiers

The design and implementation of a class-J mode RF power amplifier is described. The experimental results indicate the class-J mode's potential in achieving high efficiency across extensive bandwidth, while maintaining predistortable levels of linearity. A commercially available 10 W GaN (gallium nitride) high electron mobility transistor device was used in this investigation, together with a combination of high power waveform measurements, active harmonic load-pull and theoretical analysis of the class-J mode. Targeting a working bandwidth of 1.5-2.5 GHz an initial power amplifier (PA) design was based on basic class-J theory and computer-aided design simulation. This realized a 50% bandwidth with measured drain efficiency of 60%-70%. A second PA design iteration has realized near-rated output power of 39 dBm and improved efficiency beyond the original 2.5 GHz target, hence extending efficient PA operation across a bandwidth of 1.4-2.6 GHz, centered at 2 GHz. This second iteration made extensive use of active harmonic load-pull and waveform measurements, and incorporated a novel design methodology for achieving predistortable linearity. The class-J amplifier has been found to be more realizable than conventional class-AB modes, with a better compromise between power and efficiency tradeoffs over a substantial RF bandwidth.

A Methodology for Realizing High Efficiency Class-J in a Linear and Broadband PA

This work analyzes both by simulations and measurements the substrate crosstalk performances of various Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) technologies, and compares them to those of normal bulk CMOS process. The influence of various parameters, such as substrate resistivity, buried oxide thickness and distance between devices, is investigated. The use of capacitive guard rings is proposed, and their effectiveness is demonstrated. A simple RC model has been developed to allow a deep understanding of these phenomena as well as to simplify future studies of more complex systems. The superiority of high-resistivity SIMOX substrates over standard SOI and bulk is finally demonstrated.

Substrate crosstalk reduction using SOI technology

A class-F power amplifier (PA) improves efficiency and power-output capability (over that of class A) by using selected harmonics to shape its drain-voltage and drain-current waveforms. Typically, one waveform (e.g., voltage) approximates a square wave, while the other (e.g., current) approximates a half sine wave. The output power and efficiency of an ideal class-F PA can be related to the Fourier coefficients of the waveforms, and Fourier coefficients for maximally flat waveforms have been determined. This paper extends that theory by determining the coefficients for the maximum power and efficiency possible in a class-F PA with a given set of controlled harmonics.

Maximum efficiency and output of class-F power amplifiers

This paper presents the realization of a linear polar transmitter supporting multistandard applications. The harmonic-tuned class-AB biased (class-AB/F) power amplifier (PA) with the novel envelope shaping method linearly amplifies the input signal with high efficiency. The hybrid switching supply modulator with programmable hysteretic comparator enables the multimode operation whatever the envelope signal characteristics such as the peak-to-average power ratio and the bandwidth are. The designed polar transmitter is fabricated with CMOS 0.13-mum technology and InGaP/GaAs 2-mum HBT process for the supply modulator and the PA, respectively. For the IEEE 802.16e m-WiMax signal, it shows a power-added efficiency (PAE), an average output power (Pout), and a gain of 34.3%, 23.9 dBm, and 27.9 dB, respectively. Without any predistortion techniques, it satisfies the overall spectrum emission mask specifications. The relative constellation error and the error vector magnitude for the m-WiMax signal are -30.5 dB and 2.98%, respectively. For a WCDMA signal, it presents a PAE, a Pout, and a gain of 46%, 29 dBm, and 27.8 dB, respectively. For the EDGE signal, it delivers a PAE of 45.3% at a Pout of 27.8 dBm with a gain of 29.4 dB. There is about a 7% improvement of the overall PAE for EDGE through the optimum multimode operation.

A Polar Transmitter With CMOS Programmable Hysteretic-Controlled Hybrid Switching Supply Modulator for Multistandard Applications

Power-amplifier class-F operation is investigated and revised, evidencing the fundamental importance of the harmonic-generating mechanism and the limitations imposed by the device input and output nonlinearities on the ideal class-F behavior. Closed-form expressions are derived for the major design quantities, together with the optimum fundamental and third-harmonic loading of the active device. A design procedure, making use of the derived expressions, is presented and the deviations from the ideal behavior are discussed. Sample designs, making use of a full nonlinear device model and commercial analysis software, are carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness of the analysis and the design procedure. It is shown, both analytically and using commercial nonlinear simulations, that blind application of commonly used, idealized class-F harmonic terminations can cause unexpected detrimental results. ©1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J RF and Microwave CAE 9: 129–149, 1999

On the class‐F power amplifier design

Using a full-wave mode-matching technique, an extensive analysis is presented of the slow-wave factor, attenuation, and characteristic impedance of a metal-insulator semiconductor coplanar waveguide (MISCPW) as functions of the various structural parameters. Design criteria are given for low-attenuation slow-wave propagation. By a proper optimization of the structure, performances comparable with or even better than those of alternative structures proposed in the literature are theoretically predicted.

Characteristics of Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Coplanar Waveguides for Monolithic Microwave Circuits

Preface.Chapter 1. Nonlinear Analysis Methods.1.1 Introduction.1.2 Time-Domain Solution.1.3 Solution Through Series Expansion1.4 The Conversion Matrix.1.5 Bibliography.Chapter 2. Nonlinear Measurements.2.1 Introduction.2.2 Load/Source-Pull.2.3 The Vector Nonlinear Network Analyser.2.4 Pulsed Measurements.2.5 Bibliography.Chapter 3. Nonlinear Models.3.1 Introduction.3.2 Physical Models.3.3 Equivalent-Circuit Models.3.4 Black-Box Models.3.5 Simplified Models.3.6 Bibliography.Chapter 4. Power Amplifiers.4.1 Introduction.4.2 Classes of Operation.4.3 Simplified Class-A Fundamental-Frequency Design For High Efficiency.4.4 Multi-Harmonic Design For High Power And Efficiency.4.5 Bibliography.Chapter 5. Oscillators.5.1 Introduction.5.2 Linear Stability and Oscillation Conditions.5.3 From Linear To Nonlinear: Quasi-Large-Signal Oscillation And Stability Conditions.5.4 Design Methods.5.5 Nonlinear Analysis Methods For Oscillators.5.6 Noise.5.7 Bibliography.Chapter 6. Frequency Multipliers and Dividers.6.1 Introduction.6.2 Passive Multipliers.6.3 Active Multipliers.6.4 Frequency Dividers-The Rigenerative (Passive) Approach.6.5 Bibliography.Chapter 7. Mixers. 7.1 Introduction.7.2 Mixer Configurations.7.3 Mixer Design.7.4 Nonlinear Analysis.7.5 Noise.7.6 Bibliography.Chapter 8. Stability and Injection-locked Circuits.8.1 Introduction.8.2 Local Stability Of Nonlinear Circuits In Large-Signal Regime.8.3 Nonlinear Analysis, Stability And Bifurcations.8.4 Injection Locking.8.5 Bibliography.Appendix.A.1. Transformation in the Fourier Domain of the Linear Differential Equation.A.2. Time-Frequency Transformations.A.3 Generalized Fourier Transformation for the Volterra Series Expansion.A.4 Discrete Fourier Transform and Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform for Periodic Signals.A.5 The Harmonic Balance System of Equations for the Example Circuit with N=3.A.6 The Jacobian MatrixA.7 Multi-dimensional Discrete Fourier Transform and Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform for quasi-periodic signals.A.8 Oversampled Discrete Fourier Transform and Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform for Quasi-Periodic Signals.A.9 Derivation of Simplified Transport Equations.A.10 Determination of the Stability of a Linear Network.A.11 Determination of the Locking Range of an Injection-Locked Oscillator.Index.

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Nonlinear Microwave Circuit Design

Multiharmonic manipulation is presented as the most effective solution to improve power amplifier (PA) efficiency performances. Remarkable improvements in output power, power gain and power-added efficiency (PAE) are demonstrated, properly manipulating the input and output second and third harmonics, as compared to more classical design approaches. Experimental results at 5GHz confirm the feasibility, the validity and effectiveness of the proposed approach, increasing the maximum measured power-added efficiency from 39% to 61% © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J RF and Microwave CAE 11: 366–384, 2001

Multiharmonic manipulation for highly efficient microwave power amplifiers

The effect of second-harmonic loading on power amplifiers operated with a low-voltage supply is investigated. Closed-form expressions and design formulas are derived, making use of a simplified device model. The correctness of the assumptions and the validity range of the derived expressions is then verified by means of a full nonlinear analysis method and model: sample low-voltage designs for a power stage are performed, demonstrating the potentials of the proposed methodology. ©2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Int J RF and Microwave CAE 10: 19–32, 2000.

Giorgio Leuzzi

Papers

On the class‐F power amplifier design

Characteristics of Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Coplanar Waveguides for Monolithic Microwave Circuits

Nonlinear Microwave Circuit Design

Multiharmonic manipulation for highly efficient microwave power amplifiers

High efficiency low-voltage power amplifier design by second-harmonic manipulation