This theoretical model of emotion is based on research using the startle-probe methodology. It explains inconsistencies in probe studies of attention and fear conditioning and provides a new approach to emotional perception, imagery, and memory. Emotions are organized biphasically, as appetitive or aversive (defensive). Reflexes with the same valence as an ongoing emotional state are augmented; mismatched reflexes are inhibited. Thus, the startle response (an aversive reflex) is enhanced during a fear state and is diminished in a pleasant emotional context. This affect-startle effect is not determined by general arousal, simple attention, or probe modality. The effect is found when affects are prompted by pictures or memory images, changes appropriately with aversive conditioning, and may be dependent on right-hemisphere processing. Implications for clinical, neurophysiological, and basic research in emotion are outlined.

Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex.

The study of nonhuman personality capitalizes on the fact that individuals of many species behave in predictable, variable, and quantifiable ways. Although a few empirical studies have examined the ultimate consequences of personality differences, there has been no synthesis of results. We conducted a formal meta-analysis of published studies reporting fitness consequences of single personality dimensions to identify general trends across species. We found bolder individuals had increased reproductive success, particularly in males, but incurred a survival cost, thus, supporting the hypothesis that variation in boldness was maintained due to a ‘‘trade-off’’ in fitness consequences across contexts. Potential mechanisms maintaining variation in exploration and aggression are not as clear. Exploration had a positive effect only on survival, whereas aggression had a positive effect on both reproductive success and, not significantly, on survival. Such results would suggest that selection is driving populations to become more explorative and aggressive. However, limitations in meta-analytic techniques preclude us from testing for the effects of fluctuating environmental conditions or other forms of selection on these dimensions. Results do, however, provide evidence for general relationships between personality and fitness, and we provide a framework for future studies to follow in the hopes of spurring more in-depth, long-term research into the evolutionary mechanisms maintaining variation in personality dimensions and overall behavioral syndromes. We conclude with a discussion on how understanding and managing personality traits may play a key role in the captive breeding and recovery programs of endangered species. Key words: behavioral syndrome, fitness, personality, reproductive success, survival. [Behav Ecol]

/pdf/fitness-consequences-of-personality-a-meta-analysis-we6p6c95e0.pdf

Fitness consequences of personality: a meta-analysis

The basal ganglia are neural structures within the motor and cognitive control circuits in the mammalian forebrain and are interconnected with the neocortex by multiple loops. Dysfunction in these parallel loops caused by damage to the striatum results in major defects in voluntary movement, exemplified in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. These parallel loops have a distributed modular architecture resembling local expert architectures of computational learning models. During sensorimotor learning, such distributed networks may be coordinated by widely spaced striatal interneurons that acquire response properties on the basis of experienced reward.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/265/5180/1826.full.pdf

The basal ganglia and adaptive motor control

The convergent use of harsh, low-frequency sounds by hostile animals and more pure tonelike, high frequency sounds by fearful or appeasing animals is discussed in an evolutionary context. It is proposed that many sounds in species' repertoires are evolved from motivation-structural rules derived from selection pressures favoring the use of communication instead of, or in conjunction with, fighting to attain resources. The use of this concept should further the appreciation of the relationship between sound structure and function.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2460385.pdf

On the Occurrence and Significance of Motivation-Structural Rules in Some Bird and Mammal Sounds

This study investigated the respective roles of the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the dorsal striatum in learning and memory. A standard set of experimental conditions for studying the effects of lesions to the three brain areas using an 8-arm radial maze was used: a win-shift version, a conditioned cue preference (CCP) version, and a win-stay version. Damage to the hippocampal system impaired acquisition of the win-shift task but not the CCP or win-stay tasks. Damage to the lateral amygdala impaired acquisition of the CCP task but not the win-shift or win-stay tasks. Damage to the dorsal striatum impaired acquisition of the win-stay task but not the win-shift or CCP tasks. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the mammalian brain may be capable of acquiring different kinds of information with different, more-or-less independent neural systems. A neural system that includes the hippocampus may acquire information about the relationships among stimuli and events. A neural system that includes the amygdala may mediate the rapid acquisition of behaviors based on biologically significant events with affective properties. A neural system that includes the dorsal striatum may mediate the formation of reinforced stimulus-response associations.

A triple dissociation of memory systems: hippocampus, amygdala, and dorsal striatum

In undergoing this life, many people always try to do and get the best. New knowledge, experience, lesson, and everything that can improve the life will be done. However, many people sometimes feel confused to get those things. Feeling the limited of experience and sources to be better is one of the lacks to own. However, there is a very simple thing that can be done. This is what your teacher always manoeuvres you to do this one. Yeah, reading is the answer. Reading a book as this habituation sensitization and behavior and other references can enrich your life quality. How can it be?

Habituation, sensitization, and behavior

Retroactive impairment of passive avoidance learning by stimulation of the caudate nucleus.

Stimulus specificity of habituated aggression in the stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus).

Four experiments tested the effects of smoking one cigarette on verbal memory and attention. In Experiment I, 18 men were tested under three conditions in a repeated-measures design (pretrial smoking, posttrial smoking, no smoking). Recall of a 50-word list was tested immediately and after intervals of 10 and 45 min. Pretrial smoking resulted in improved recall 10 and 45 min after learning, but not immediately. Posttrial smoking was ineffectual. In Experiment II, three posttrial smoking intervals (1, 5, and 30 min after presentation of a 20-word list) were compared with pretrial smoking and no smoking using a between-subjects design. The 76 light, moderate, and heavy smokers in Experiment II smoked a 1.38 mg nicotine cigarette and were tested 24 h later. Improved recall occurred for pretrial smoking, but not for any posttrial smoking interval and for light and moderate smokers only. Experiment III compared a low (0.40 mg) and high (1.38 mg) level of nicotine cigarette in light and heavy smokers using pretrial smoking. The high-nicotine cigarette resulted in improved recall for both immediate- and delayed-recall tests. The low-nicotine cigarette was less effective. Light and heavy smokers differed in effect of smoking on heart rate, but not in effect of smoking on recall. Experiment IV found no effect of smoking on depth of processing. The possible mechanisms by which nicotine affects recall are discussed.

Attention, memory, and cigarette smoking

In a variety of taxa, the initial resident in a spatial area enjoys a dominance advantage over a subsequent intruder. In decapod crustaceans this "prior residence effect" has been demonstrated in lobsters, prawns, and crabs. However, there is scant evidence for the effect in crayfish. In the present series of experiments, individual signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) were introduced into one side of divided aquaria, which contained a shelter. Another crayfish was put into the opposite side. Twenty-four hours later the divider was removed. In same-sex encounters 76% of female residents retained shelter possession, as did approximately 70% of male residents, both sexes demonstrating a significant territorial prior residence effect. In mixed-sex encounters, female residents retained shelter possession against male intruders in 80% of them. However, male residents retained shelter occupancy in only 33% of the encounters with female intruders. These findings demonstrate the existence of a prior resident effect in P. leniusculus. The contest advantage of females over males is consistent with previous research showing female dominance over males in social dominance hierarchies in this species.

Harman V.S. Peeke

Papers

Habituation, sensitization, and behavior

Retroactive impairment of passive avoidance learning by stimulation of the caudate nucleus.

Stimulus specificity of habituated aggression in the stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus).

Attention, memory, and cigarette smoking

Prior Residence Effects in Shelter Defense in Adult Signal Crayfish (Pacifastacus Leniusculus (Dana)): Results in Same- and Mixed-Sex Dyads