AMPHIBIAN DECLINES: THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF UNITED STATES SPECIES. Michael Lannoo (ed.). 2005. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-235924. XXI + 1094 p. $95.00 (hard cover).—During the past decade and a half, much has been discussed and published on amphibian declines. The new information obtained created a novel field of research in herpetology. The starting point of this new field was the First World Congress of Herpetology, held in Canterbury, England, in 1989, when herpetologists found that the amphibian disappearances they had witnessed individually were not merely rare, local phenomena but rather appeared to be occurring around the globe. The relevance of amphibian declines can be measured not only by the scientific production but also by the extensive coverage by the popular press. The book ‘‘Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species’’ summarizes the advances of this new research field, mainly in the United States. This is an extraordinary book based on the experience of an impressive team of specialists on amphibian declines and conservation, primarily focused on species from the United States. Because North American herpetologists have accumulated detailed data on native amphibians over many years, this book is very thorough. The book is divided into two parts; part one is a collection of 52 essays on conservation written mainly by researchers with extensive experience in amphibian conservation. This first part is divided into an Introduction and chapters titled Declines, Causes, Conservation, Surveys and Monitoring, Education, and Perspective. Part two corresponds to the species accounts for Anura and Caudata. An amazing total of 215 contributors participated in the two parts of the book, producing more than a thousand pages of rich information on amphibian declines and conservation in United States. The essays vary in detail and breadth of coverage, and there is some overlap among some of them, but this is to be expected in a book written by so many scientists. In the Introduction there are five essays that provide a historical perspective on the conservation of amphibians. In the Declines chapter five essays give a historical perspective as well, but there is also specific information on the decline of cricket frogs (Acris crepitans) and a data-rich essay on the decline of the salamanders of the genus Plethodon. Together the essays address all of the relevant topics of conservation and decline in amphibians. For example, the first essay by Tim Halliday addresses the main reasons for amphibian declines, summarizing recent progress that is improving our understanding on the causal factors promoting it. He indicates habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, increased UV-B radiation, and disease as the main factors, but also calls attention to the synergistic action among some of these causes. The necessity of a more ample comprehension of the conservation status of other groups of organisms is also highlighted, given that declines may also be severe in other taxa, such as bivalves. The lack of data on distribution, population structure, and habitat of amphibians makes the task of protection more difficult. In the second essay, Martha L. Crump discusses why some species are in decline while others are not. She compares studies in different parts of the world and concludes that the patterns associated with declines in one assemblage are not necessarily repeated in other assemblages. She did not find a clear pattern of differences (in phylogeny, distribution, habitat, activity, diet, body size, skin characteristics, and life history traits) between declining and non-declining species. She concludes that some species are less able to cope with anthropogenic environmental changes. In Causes, 12 essays adequately cover the main causes that have been proposed or demonstrated to be involved in amphibian declines. Global warming, UV radiation, chemical pollution, parasites and malformations, habitat destruction or alteration, and commercial trade of amphibians are among the treated topics. However, in this chapter some essays are not related to the causes of decline per se, such as the essay on the Lucké renal adenocarcinoma in Northern Leopard Frogs (Lithobates pipiens). In this case there is no evidence that the carcinoma is a factor in frog population decline. In Conservation, 18 essays treat different aspects of amphibian conservation. There are essays on the conservation of specific taxa, such as one on the endangered Houston Toad (Anaxyrus houstonensis) that includes information on the major causes of decline and the politics that play an important role in conservation. The essay on fluctuations in the size of tiger salamander populations provides useful information for understanding the related natural and anthropogenic factors that affect this amphibian. The essay on the Texas spring and cave salamanders (Eurycea) shows that most species have restricted distributions and are threatened by human activities. The essay on the Southwestern desert bufonids indicates that, although these toads escaped the declines experienced by many anurans, some species are being eliminated from some areas as a result of habitat alteration. Two essays raise questions on taxonomic and systematic problems and the conservation status of the amphibians. They call attention to the necessity of clear and workable systems of classification to describe biodiversity, the importance of phylogenetic taxonomies, and the importance of conservation systematics in management and politics. The essay by Karen R. Lips and Maureen A. Donnelly is an exception in the book in that it aims to describe the nature, extent, and possible causes of amphibian declines in the tropics and not in United States. The limitation of this essay is the lack of data on tropical amphibian, which is not the authors’ fault (see below). Other essays in this chapter are on amphibian decline and management, landscape ecology, ecotoxicology, importance of museum collections in amphibian conservation, reserve network, population manipulations of imperiled species, exotic invading species of fish and amphibians and their impacts on the natural systems, and the importance of natural history in the conservation of amphibians. In the Surveys and Monitoring chapter, nine essays cover general and specific aspects, including methodological proposals. Some essays treat the distribution, decline, and monitoring of amphibians from specific places in the United States or from a general program, the North American

Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species

The Anthropocene is characterized by a widespread biodiversity crisis that is rivaling prehistoric mass extinctions. Amphibians are the most threatened class of vertebrates. In addition to traditional threats such as land-use conversion and pollution, climate change and introduced diseases are expected to further reduce amphibian biodiversity. The fungal disease chytridiomycosis has caused the rapid extirpation of tens to possibly hundreds of amphibian species. Recent advances have revealed a deep evolutionary history and considerable variation in the virulence of strains of the fungal pathogen, patterns that need to be reconciled with the rapid spread of disease and demise of host populations. A conservation priority is surveillance of a newly discovered species of chytrid fungus that is killing European salamanders. The accelerated discovery of new amphibian species challenges existing conservation resources, but it is an opportunity to fill geographical gaps and to enhance programs aimed at preserving ...

State of the World's Amphibians

The Class Amphibia is one of the most severely impacted taxa in an on-going global biodiversity crisis. Because amphibian reproduction is tightly associated with the presence of water, climatic changes that affect water availability pose a particularly menacing threat to both aquatic and terrestrial-breeding amphibians. We explore the impacts that one facet of climate change—that of extreme variation in precipitation—may have on amphibians. This variation is manifested principally as increases in the incidence and severity of both drought and major storm events. We stress the need to consider not only total precipitation amounts but also the pattern and timing of rainfall events. Such rainfall “pulses” are likely to become increasingly more influential on amphibians, especially in relation to seasonal reproduction. Changes in reproductive phenology can strongly influence the outcome of competitive and predatory interactions, thus potentially altering community dynamics in assemblages of co-existing species. We present a conceptual model to illustrate possible landscape and metapopulation consequences of alternative climate change scenarios for pond-breeding amphibians, using the Mole Salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, as an example. Although amphibians have evolved a variety of life history strategies that enable them to cope with environmental uncertainty, it is unclear whether adaptations can keep pace with the escalating rate of climate change. Climate change, especially in combination with other stressors, is a daunting challenge for the persistence of amphibians and, thus, the conservation of global biodiversity.

Drought, deluge and declines: the impact of precipitation extremes on amphibians in a changing climate

Captive breeding and reintroduction remain high profile but controversial conservation interventions. It is important to understand how such programs develop and respond to strategic conservation initiatives. We analyzed the contribution to conservation made by amphibian captive breeding and reintroduction since the launch of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) in 2007. We assembled data on amphibian captive breeding and reintroduction from a variety of sources including the Amphibian Ark database and the IUCN Red List. We also carried out systematic searches of Web of Science, JSTOR, and Google Scholar for relevant literature. Relative to data collected from 1966 to 2006, the number of species involved in captive breeding and reintroduction projects increased by 57% in the 7 years since release of the ACAP. However, there have been relatively few new reintroductions over this period; most programs have focused on securing captive-assurance populations (i.e., species taken into captivity as a precaution against extinctions in the wild) and conservation-related research. There has been a shift to a broader representation of frogs, salamanders, and caecilians within programs and an increasing emphasis on threatened species. There has been a relative increase of species in programs from Central and South America and the Caribbean, where amphibian biodiversity is high. About half of the programs involve zoos and aquaria with a similar proportion represented in specialist facilities run by governmental or nongovernmental agencies. Despite successful reintroduction often being regarded as the ultimate milestone for such programs, the irreversibility of many current threats to amphibians may make this an impractical goal. Instead, research on captive assurance populations may be needed to develop imaginative solutions to enable amphibians to survive alongside current, emerging, and future threats.

Developments in amphibian captive breeding and reintroduction programs.

Climate change probably has severe impacts on animal populations, but demonstrating a causal link can be difficult because of potential influences by additional factors. Assessing global impacts of climate change effects may also be hampered by narrow taxonomic and geographical research foci. We review studies on the effects of climate change on populations of amphibians and reptiles to assess climate change effects and potential biases associated with the body of work that has been conducted within the last decade. We use data from 104 studies regarding the effect of climate on 313 species, from 464 species–study combinations. Climate change effects were reported in 65% of studies. Climate change was identified as causing population declines or range restrictions in half of the cases. The probability of identifying an effect of climate change varied among regions, taxa and research methods. Climatic effects were equally prevalent in studies exclusively investigating climate factors (more than 50% of studies) and in studies including additional factors, thus bolstering confidence in the results of studies exclusively examining effects of climate change. Our analyses reveal biases with respect to geography, taxonomy and research question, making global conclusions impossible. Additional research should focus on under-represented regions, taxa and questions. Conservation and climate policy should consider the documented harm climate change causes reptiles and amphibians.

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Patterns and biases in climate change research on amphibians and reptiles: A systematic review

The current mass extinction episode is most apparent in the amphibians. With approximately 7,000 species, amphibians are dependent on clean fresh water and damp habitats and are considered vulnerable to habitat loss (deforestation), changes in water or soil quality and the potential impacts of climate change, and in addition many species are suffering from an epidemic caused by a chytrid fungus. Because of their sensitivity and general dependence on both terrestrial and aquatic habitats they are often regarded as indicators of the health of the environment. The latest figures from the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species™ show that there are nearly as many species of amphibians categorised as Threatened as those of Threatened birds and mammals put together, with an estimated 40% of amphibian species in danger of extinction. Furthermore, although amphibians have survived multiple previous global mass extinctions, in the last 20-40 years precipitous population declines have taken place on a scale not previously seen. Although amphibian declines were first reported in the 1950s, the magnitude and global scope of the problem were only fully realised during discussions at the 1st World Congress of Herpetology in England in 1989. Shortly thereafter, the Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force (DAPTF) was established by the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) to investigate the causes and severity of the declines. Many projects and publications were stimulated by the DAPTF and the results of these prompted the IUCN to conduct a global amphibian assessment in 2004. IUCN SSC’s Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP) was published in 2007, following an Amphibian Conservation Summit held in 2005. The ACAP identified the key issues that require attention in order to curb this crisis, and provided the framework for interventions. While there have been significant efforts in the last five years, the response to the crisis has not progressed across all areas of the action plan at a scale sufficient to halt the crisis. As a direct result, species continue to decline and go extinct. Finding solutions to counter amphibian declines and extinctions is one of the greatest conservation challenges of the century, which comes with alarming and serious implications for the health of ecosystems globally. The Amphibian Survival Alliance (ASA), launched in June 2011, acts as a global partnership for amphibian conservation. It is in a pivotal position to implement the ACAP, acting to mobilise a motivated and effective consortium of organisations working together to stem the rapid losses of amphibian populations and species worldwide. The Alliance brings focus, coordination, and leadership in addressing one of the world’s most serious extinction crises. Its goal is the restoration of all threatened native amphibian species to their natural roles and population levels in ecosystems worldwide. The recently formed Amphibian Survival Alliance will address the multiple ACAP issues with several new initiatives, including creating a web-based ‘living’ version of ACAP and driving the implementation of the ACAP themes in a more progressive and collaborative manner than ever before, thereby stemming the loss of an important part of the biological diversity of our planet.

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The Amphibian Extinction Crisis - what will it take to put the action into the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan?

In 2005, the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Conservation International(CI) convened the Amphibian Conservation Summit to design a global planof action, the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP), to address thedecline of amphibian populations worldwide. The IUCN SSC AmphibianSpecialist Group (ASG) was formed in 2006 to implement the ACAP. TheASG’s objectives are to facilitate the development of new policies withinnationalandinternationalarenas,aswellaswithintheprivatesector,andtoactively develop projects, locally and regionally, all aimed at preventingfurther species extinctions. The ACAP provides an estimate of the budgetrequired for actions needed to address global priorities for conservation. Astrategy and budget for priorities ensures that actions align with areas,geographic and thematic, in greatest need. A critical next step towardsadvancing the ACAP is reﬁning its objectives within the context of nationaland regional strategies and engagement by national resource managementagencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for successful imple-mentation of conservation actions. To this end, the ASG and partners havebeen facilitating the convening of working groups to develop strategies foradvancing policy development to enable implementation of on-the-groundconservationmanagementwithinspeciﬁcregionsandcountries.Areviewofstrategies in development and completed indicates that conservation plan-ning at the scale of nations and regions is an important step towardreconciling some debates on what actions are of highest priority for globalamphibian conservation and illustrates how priorities vary geographically.However, successful translation of scientiﬁcally based strategic plans intoconservation action in the ﬁeld has not occurred widely, partly due to a lackof follow up in engaging governments and NGOs to incorporate the plansinto their directives. Continued pressure on governments and NGOs isneeded to use species assessments as the metric for determining the statusof the environment, and amphibian conservation plans as one of theroadmaps for how funding should be allocated to maintain and improve thehealth of natural ecosystems.

J. Garcia Moreno

Papers

The Amphibian Extinction Crisis - what will it take to put the action into the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan?

Scaling a global plan into regional strategies for amphibian conservation