creased by 0.47 SDs under active learning (n = 158 studies), and that the odds ratio for failing was 1.95 under traditional lecturing (n = 67 studies). These results indicate that average examination scores improved by about 6% in active learning sections, and that students in classes with traditional lecturing were 1.5 times more likely to fail than were students in classes with active learning. Heterogeneity analyses indicated that both results hold across the STEM disciplines, that active learning increases scores on concept inventories more than on course examinations, and that active learning appears effective across all class sizes—although the greatest effects are in small (n ≤ 50) classes. Trim and fill analyses and fail-safe n calculations suggest that the results are not due to publication bias. The results also appear robust to variation in the methodological rigor of the included studies, based on the quality of controls over student quality and instructor identity. This is the largest and most comprehensive metaanalysis of undergraduate STEM education published to date. The results raise questions about the continued use of traditional lecturing as a control in research studies, and support active learning as the preferred, empirically validated teaching practice in regular classrooms.

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Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics

National Science Education Standards

미국의 “전국 수학 교사 협의회”(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, NCTM)는 1989년부터 〈학교 수학의 교육과정과 평가 규준〉(1989), 〈수학 가르침(교수)의 전문성 규준〉(1991), 〈학교 수학의 평가(시험) 규준〉(NCTM, 1995), 〈학교 수학의 원리와 규준〉(2000)을 출판하여 미국의 수학 교육 의 전망(목표, 나아갈 길)과 규준(실행 지침)을 제시하였다. 수학 교사들로 구성된 미국의 NCTM은 학생, 학부모, 학교 행정가 등 많은 사람들과 힘을 합하여 모든 학생들에게 수준 높은 수학 교육을 받을 수 있는 여건(환경, 기회)을 조성하는 데 구심점의 역할을 하였다. 한편 많은 관련 단체들은 여러 배경과 능력을 가진 학생들이 전문성을 지닌 교사(특수 교사를 일컫는 밀이 아니다. 수학 교과를 이해하고 수학의 전문성과 특수성을 가르칠 수 있는 일반 교사를 일컫는 말이다.)로부터 미래를 대비해 평등하고, 진취적이며, 지원이 잘 이루어지고, 공학 도구(IT)가 잘 갖춰진 환경에서 중요한 수학적 아이디어를 이해하면서 학습할 수 있는 수학 교실(미국에서는 우리나라처럼 수학 교사가 수학 시간에 학생의 방(교실: Homeroom)에 찾아가지 않고 학생들이 선생의 방(수학 교실: Classroom)을 찾아온다. 전형적인 수학 교실의 사진은 2쪽에 나와 있다.)을 만들기 위해 함께 힘썼다. NCTM에서 출간한 여러 규준들은 우리나라의 제6차와 제7차 교육과정에도 큰 영향을 미쳤다. 이 글에서는 NCTM(2000)에서 제시한 학습 원리를 간단히 살펴본 다음 이를 중심으로 현재 미국 수학 교육의 교수ㆍ학습 이론의 동향을 살펴본다.

미국 NCTM의 Principles and Standards for School Mathematics에 나타난 수학과 교수,학습의 이론

This paper is based on the premises that the purpose of engineering education is to graduate engineers who can design, and that design thinking is complex. The paper begins by briefly reviewing the history and role of design in the engineering curriculum. Several dimensions of design thinking are then detailed, explaining why design is hard to learn and harder still to teach, and outlining the research available on how well design thinking skills are learned. The currently most-favored pedagogical model for teaching design, project-based learning (PBL), is explored next, along with available assessment data on its success. Two contexts for PBL are emphasized: first-year cornerstone courses and globally dispersed PBL courses. Finally, the paper lists some of the open research questions that must be answered to identify the best pedagogical practices of improving design learning, after which it closes by making recommendations for research aimed at enhancing design learning.

Engineering Design Thinking, Teaching, and Learning

Traditional engineering instruction is deductive, beginning with theories and progressing to the applications of those theories Alternative teaching approaches are more inductive Topics are introduced by presenting specific observations, case studies or problems, and theories are taught or the students are helped to discover them only after the need to know them has been established This study reviews several of the most commonly used inductive teaching methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching The paper defines each method, highlights commonalities and specific differences, and reviews research on the effectiveness of the methods While the strength of the evidence varies from one method to another, inductive methods are consistently found to be at least equal to, and in general more effective than, traditional deductive methods for achieving a broad range of learning outcomes

Inductive Teaching and Learning Methods: Definitions, Comparisons, and Research Bases

An integrated teaching and learning (ITL) program was initiated in 1992 by a team of faculty and students who articulated an ambitious vision for undergraduate engineering education reform: ` . . . to pioneer a multidisciplinary learning environment that integrates engineering theory with practice and promotes creative, team-oriented problem-solving skills.' The ITL Laboratory was dedicated in 1997 to support this college-wide vision. This paper describes the development process of this new facility and its major features. The underlying educational value is also discussed. Outreach activities are described, including a unique on-line system where experimental modules are made available on the WorldWideWeb.

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Hands-on Engineering: Learning by Doing in the Integrated Teaching and Learning Program*

– This longitudinal study is an investigation of the impact on student retention of a First-Year Engineering Projects (FYEP) course at a large public research university. Student retention was measured at the third, fifth and seventh semester for student takers and non-takers of a first-year, team-based design/build course. Retention data were analyzed across eight years for 5,070 students, representing 2,128 students who took the FYEP course (42%) and 2,942 students who did not take the course (58%). Significant retention gains were found for all student takers. The authors compare these results with reported retention data from other engineering institutions and discuss possible causes and ramifications of the findings.

Improving Engineering Student Retention through Hands-On, Team Based, First-Year Design Projects

This study evaluates the impact on student retention of the First-Year Engineering Projects (FYEP) course at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Student retention was measured at the third, fifth and seventh semester for student takers and non-takers of the FYEP design/build course. Data were analyzed for 2,581 students over five years, representing 1,035 students who took the FYEP course (40%) and 1,546 students who did not take the course (60%). Significant gains in retention were found for student takers, and even higher retention rates were observed for students typically underrepresented in engineering — women and students of color. This paper compares these results with reported retention data from other institutions and discusses possible causes and ramifications of the findings.

Staying In Engineering: Effects Of A Hands On, Team Based, First Year Projects Course On Student Retention

Motivated by a desire to excite K-12 students about the joys of engineering and spark their interest in pre-engineering subjects, the Integrated Teaching and Learning (ITL) Program at the University of Colorado at Boulder has developed a pre-engineering outreach program targeted at K-12 teachers and students. To supplement anecdotal success indicators, ITL developed several assessment tools to measure the impact of these programs. Assessment strategies consist of three key components: 1) assessment of workshop participant feedback (teachers and students), 2) assessment of long-term outcomes (teachers), and 3) assessment tools developed for the teachers' classroom use (i.e., embedded assessment). This paper reviews the process used to develop the assessment plans and tools. Examples of the tools used to assess participant feedback and preliminary outcomes are provided.



Additionally, the process used to develop embedded assessment tools is described, including development of performance criteria and assessment tools that are linked to the learning goals, objectives, and K-12 State educational standards.

Assessing K-12 Pre-Engineering Outreach Programs*

Fewer students leave engineering studies when education programs link concepts to real-world practice.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/317/5842/1175.full.pdf

Jacquelyn F. Sullivan

Papers

Hands-on Engineering: Learning by Doing in the Integrated Teaching and Learning Program*

Improving Engineering Student Retention through Hands-On, Team Based, First-Year Design Projects

Staying In Engineering: Effects Of A Hands On, Team Based, First Year Projects Course On Student Retention

Assessing K-12 Pre-Engineering Outreach Programs*

Engineering education research aids instruction