抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Biomass represents an abundant carbon-neutral renewable resource for the production of bioenergy and biomaterials, and its enhanced use would address several societal needs. Advances in genetics, biotechnology, process chemistry, and engineering are leading to a new manufacturing concept for converting renewable biomass to valuable fuels and products, generally referred to as the biorefinery. The integration of agroenergy crops and biorefinery manufacturing technologies offers the potential for the development of sustainable biopower and biomaterials that will lead to a new manufacturing paradigm.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/311/5760/484.full.pdf

The path forward for biofuels and biomaterials

3.2.3. Hydroformylation 2467 3.2.4. Dimerization 2468 3.2.5. Oxidative Cleavage and Ozonolysis 2469 3.2.6. Metathesis 2470 4. Terpenes 2472 4.1. Pinene 2472 4.1.1. Isomerization: R-Pinene 2472 4.1.2. Epoxidation of R-Pinene 2475 4.1.3. Isomerization of R-Pinene Oxide 2477 4.1.4. Hydration of R-Pinene: R-Terpineol 2478 4.1.5. Dehydroisomerization 2479 4.2. Limonene 2480 4.2.1. Isomerization 2480 4.2.2. Epoxidation: Limonene Oxide 2480 4.2.3. Isomerization of Limonene Oxide 2481 4.2.4. Dehydroisomerization of Limonene and Terpenes To Produce Cymene 2481

Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Biomass into Chemicals

Biomass is an important feedstock for the renewable production of fuels, chemicals, and energy. As of 2005, over 3% of the total energy consumption in the United States was supplied by biomass, and it recently surpassed hydroelectric energy as the largest domestic source of renewable energy. Similarly, the European Union received 66.1% of its renewable energy from biomass, which thus surpassed the total combined contribution from hydropower, wind power, geothermal energy, and solar power. In addition to energy, the production of chemicals from biomass is also essential; indeed, the only renewable source of liquid transportation fuels is currently obtained from biomass.

The Catalytic Valorization of Lignin for the Production of Renewable Chemicals

The talk with present the key results of the IPCC Working Group III 5th assessment report. Concluding four years of intense scientific collaboration by hundreds of authors from around the world, the report responds to the request of the world's governments for a comprehensive, objective and policy neutral assessment of the current scientific knowledge on mitigating climate change. The report has been extensively reviewed by experts and governments to ensure quality and comprehensiveness.

Climate change 2014 - Mitigation of climate change

Lignocellulosic biomass is considered as a sustainable and potentially renewable resourse alternative to fossil fuels. Research into developing novel and innovative means to harness lignocellulosic biomass for fuels, energy, and materials has increased in the past decade as it has become clear that developing technologies must center around the mitigation of climate change. This article outlines recent advances in pretreating biomass, including using kraft pulping, organosolv, and ionic liquid methods, to produce biofuels, renewable chemicals, and biomaterials.

Recent advances in the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass

Platform chemicals derived from lignocellulosic plant biomass are viewed as a sustainable replacement for crude oil-based feedstocks. Levulinic acid (LA) is one such biomass-derived chemical that has been widely studied for further catalytic transformation to γ-valerolactone (GVL), an important 'green' fuel additive, solvent, and fine chemical intermediate. Although the transformation of LA to GVL can be achieved using heterogeneous catalysis, homogeneous catalytic systems that operate under milder reactions, give higher selectivities and can be recycled continuously are attracting considerable attention. A range of new homogeneous catalysts have now been demonstrated to efficiently convert LA to GVL and to transform LA directly to other value-added chemicals such as 1,4-pentanediol (1,4-PDO) and 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF). This Minireview covers recent advances in the area of homogeneous catalysis for the conversion of levulinic acid and levulinic ester derivatives to GVL and chemicals beyond GVL.

/pdf/homogeneous-catalyzed-reactions-of-levulinic-acid-to-g-3z2lfkuo3k.pdf

Homogeneous Catalyzed Reactions of Levulinic Acid: To γ-Valerolactone and Beyond.

Quantitative glucose release from softwood after pretreatment with low-cost ionic liquids

Solvatochromic shifts of six probe indicators {4-nitroaniline, 4-nitroanisole, 4-nitrophenol, N,N-dimethyl-4-nitroaniline, 4-(2,4,6-triphenylpyridinium)-2,6-diphenylphenoxide and 2,6-dichloro-4-(2,4,6-triphenyl-1-pyridinio)phenolate} have been measured in binary mixtures of carbon dioxide with acetone and methanol at 35 and 40 °C over the entire range of solvent composition. The indicators were used to specify the solvatochromic solvent parameters (ET(30), α, β, and π*), which were calculated from the solvatochromic shifts of the maximum absorbance peak ( ν max ) observed by means of UV–vis spectroscopy.

Determination of solvatochromic solvent parameters for the characterization of gas-expanded liquids

https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2018/gc/c8gc00837j

Jason P. Hallett

Papers

Recent advances in the pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass

Homogeneous Catalyzed Reactions of Levulinic Acid: To γ-Valerolactone and Beyond.

Quantitative glucose release from softwood after pretreatment with low-cost ionic liquids

Determination of solvatochromic solvent parameters for the characterization of gas-expanded liquids

Rapid pretreatment of Miscanthus using the low-cost ionic liquid triethylammonium hydrogen sulfate at elevated temperatures