The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

The psychology of interpersonal relations , The psychology of interpersonal relations , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)

The psychology of interpersonal relations

New developments in the science of learning science of learning overview mind and brain how experts differ from novices how children learn learning and transfer the learning environment curriculum, instruction and commnity effective teaching - examples in history, mathematics and science teacher learning technology to support learning conclusions from new developments in the science of learning.

How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school.

▪ Abstract The prefrontal cortex has long been suspected to play an important role in cognitive control, in the ability to orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal goals. Its neural basis, however, has remained a mystery. Here, we propose that cognitive control stems from the active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal cortex that represent goals and the means to achieve them. They provide bias signals to other brain structures whose net effect is to guide the flow of activity along neural pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task. We review neurophysiological, neurobiological, neuroimaging, and computational studies that support this theory and discuss its implications as well as further issues to be addressed

/pdf/an-integrative-theory-of-prefrontal-cortex-function-2j9unprn5f.pdf

An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

/pdf/a-social-cognitive-approach-to-motivation-and-personality-4r18vjg2jg.pdf

A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

Essai sur les transformations des opérations logiques : les 256 opérations ternaires de la logique bivalente des propositions

Conversations libres avec Jean Piaget

Main trends in inter-disciplinary research

Resume
ANALYSE RETROSPECTIVE ET ANALYSE PROSPECTIVE DANS LA PSYCHOLOGIE DE L'ENFANT.

Dans sa “Reinterpretation” des resultats de l'auteur concernant les “Pourquoi” enfantins N. Isaacs se place a un point de vue uniquement prospectif et fonctionel. L'auteur cherche a montrer ici que ce point de vue n'exclut pas l'analyse structurale ou retrospective, mais que les deux points de vue se completent sans se contredire. Une meme question, comme “Pourquoi la grotte doit etre si noire?” obeit a la fois au scheme de N. Isaacs et au scheme de l'auteur. Du premier point de vue elle resulte d'une anticipation due a l'experience anterieure et contrecarree par l'experience actuelle, elle est donc analogue a la recherche scientifique des lois et a l'analyse rationelle, des exceptions, ou des obstacles a la loi. Mais cela n'empeche pas, au second point de vue, d'analyser ce que l'enfant entend par “noir,” par “doit etre,” par “pourquoi,” etc. On s'apercoit alors que ces notions ont une structure differente de celle des notions adultes correspondantes: le “noir” est une substance, le terme “doit” exprime encore une idee d'obligation, etc. Par consequent la structure est en retard sur le fonctionnement, elle a une histoire en partie independante et constitue en somme une sorte de cristallisation du fonctionnement passe.

Ubersicht
RETROSPEKTIVE UND PROSPEKTIVE ANALYSE IN DER KINDERPSYCHOLOGIE.

In seiner Wiederauslegung “der Ergebnisse des Verfassers uber das “Wie” der Kinder steht” N. Isaacs auf einem ausschliesslich prospektiven und funktionellen Standpunkt. Der Verf. versucht hier zu zeigen, dass dieser Standpunkt organische oder retrospektive Analyse nicht ausschliesst, sondern dass die beiden Ansichten sich erganzen, ohne mit einander im Widerspruch zu stehen. Eine gleiche Frage wie “Warum die Hohle so schwarz sein musse?” stimmt zugleich mit dem Entwurf von N. Isaacs und dem des Verf. uberein. Aus dem ersten Gesichtspunkt ergibt sich eine Erwartung, die fruherem Erlebnis zugeschrieben werden muss und die im Widerspruch mit gegenwartigem Erlebnis steht. Sie entspricht also der wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der Gesetze und der vernunftgemassen Analyse der Ausnahmen oder der Gesetzwidrigkeiten. Vom zweiten Gesichtspunkt aber hindert es nicht, wenn man analysieren will, was das Kind unter “schwarz,” unter “muss sein,” unter “warum” versteht. Man sieht also ein, dass diese Begriffe einen anderen Bau von dem der entsprechenden Begriffe Erwachsener haben; das “Schwarz” ist ein Stoff, der Ausdruck “muss” druckt noch einen Begriff der Verpflichtung u.s.w. aus. Infolgedessen bleibt der Bau hinter der Tatigkeit zuruck, jener hat eine zum Teil unabhangige Geschichte und bildet schliesslich eine Art Kristallisation vergangener Tatigkeit.

Jean Piaget

Papers

Essai sur les transformations des opérations logiques : les 256 opérations ternaires de la logique bivalente des propositions

Conversations libres avec Jean Piaget

Main trends in inter-disciplinary research

Retrospective and prospective analysis in child psychology

Le Possible et le Nécessaire (1): L'évolution des possibles chez l'enfant