The effects of reward or reinforcement on preceding behavior depend in part on whether the person perceives the reward as contingent on his own behavior or independent of it. Acquisition and performance differ in situations perceived as determined by skill versus chance. Persons may also differ in generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. This report summarizes several experiments which define group differences in behavior when Ss perceive reinforcement as contingent on their behavior versus chance or experimenter control. The report also describes the development of tests of individual differences in a generalized belief in internal-external control and provides reliability, discriminant validity and normative data for 1 test, along with a description of the results of several studies of construct validity.

Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.

The psychology of interpersonal relations , The psychology of interpersonal relations , کتابخانه دیجیتال و فن آوری اطلاعات دانشگاه امام صادق(ع)

The psychology of interpersonal relations

New developments in the science of learning science of learning overview mind and brain how experts differ from novices how children learn learning and transfer the learning environment curriculum, instruction and commnity effective teaching - examples in history, mathematics and science teacher learning technology to support learning conclusions from new developments in the science of learning.

How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school.

▪ Abstract The prefrontal cortex has long been suspected to play an important role in cognitive control, in the ability to orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal goals. Its neural basis, however, has remained a mystery. Here, we propose that cognitive control stems from the active maintenance of patterns of activity in the prefrontal cortex that represent goals and the means to achieve them. They provide bias signals to other brain structures whose net effect is to guide the flow of activity along neural pathways that establish the proper mappings between inputs, internal states, and outputs needed to perform a given task. We review neurophysiological, neurobiological, neuroimaging, and computational studies that support this theory and discuss its implications as well as further issues to be addressed

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An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

/pdf/a-social-cognitive-approach-to-motivation-and-personality-4r18vjg2jg.pdf

A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

If we assume that functions express the links inherent in schemes of actions in their dual causal and operatory or preoperatory aspect, it is reasonable to study in this respect a causal situation in which the variables are relatively easy to distinguish and to analyze both separately and together. A transitive movement resulting from a single thrust linked to an action, whether direct or instrumental, is certainly the most primitive example from the genetic point of view, but it is not very suitable for a detailed analysis of the functions involved given the global nature of their causes and effects as well as the difficulty experienced by young subjects in quantifying them with any precision and in particular in quantifying them metrically. We have therefore devised an apparatus which appears to be very complicated but is actually fairly simple. It is composed of weights z which stretch a spring2 of variable length x through a string of constant length whose two segments y and y′ are perpendicular and thus vary in an inverse relation (Figure 8). Additionally there are two arrows Fa and Fb, whose displacements, indicated on scales, correspond to the variations in the weights z and the length of the spring x.

Jean Piaget

Papers

An Example of Causal and Spatial Functions

Epistemología genética y filosofía

Psychologie et épistémologie génétiques : thèmes piagétiens : hommage à Jean Piaget, avec une bibliographie complète de ses œuvres

La psicogénesis del conocimiento y su significado epistemológico

Introduction à la malacologie valaisanne