A single high dose of interferon-β (IFNβ) activates powerful cellular responses, in which many anti-viral, pro-apoptotic, and anti-proliferative proteins are highly expressed. Since some of these proteins are deleterious, cells downregulate this initial response rapidly. However, the expression of many anti-viral proteins that do no harm is sustained, prolonging a substantial part of the initial anti-viral response for days and also providing resistance to DNA damage. While the transcription factor ISGF3 (IRF9 and tyrosine-phosphorylated STATs 1 and 2) drives the first rapid response phase, the related factor un-phosphorylated ISGF3 (U-ISGF3), formed by IFNβ-induced high levels of IRF9 and STATs 1 and 2 without tyrosine phosphorylation, drives the second prolonged response. The U-ISGF3-induced anti-viral genes that show prolonged expression are driven by distinct IFN stimulated response elements (ISREs). Continuous exposure of cells to a low level of IFNβ, often seen in cancers, leads to steady-state increased expression of only the U-ISGF3-dependent proteins, with no sustained increase in other IFNβ-induced proteins, and to constitutive resistance to DNA damage.

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IFNβ-dependent increases in STAT1, STAT2, and IRF9 mediate resistance to viruses and DNA damage.

Interferons and their stimulated genes in the tumor microenvironment

The glycome acts as an essential interface between cells and the surrounding microenvironment. However, changes in glycosylation occur in nearly all breast cancers, which can alter this interaction. Here we report that profiles of glycosylation vary between ER-positive and ER-negative breast cancers. We found that genes involved in the synthesis of sialyl-Lewis x (sLex) (FUT3, FUT4 and ST3GAL6) are significantly increased in estrogen receptor alpha negative (ER-negative) tumours compared to ER-positive ones. SLex expression had no influence on the survival of patients whether they had ER-negative or ER-positive tumours. However, high expression of sLex in ER-positive tumors was correlated with metastasis to the bone where sLex receptor E-selectin is constitutively expressed. The ER-positive ZR-75-1 and the ER-negative BT20 cell lines both express sLex but only ZR-75-1 cells could adhere to activated endothelial cells under dynamic flow conditions in a sLex and E-selectin dependent manner. Moreover, L/P-selectins bound strongly to ER-negative MDA-MB-231 and BT-20 cell lines in a heparan sulfate-dependent manner that was independent of sLex expression. Expression of glycosylation genes involved in heparan biosynthesis (EXT1 and HS3ST1) was increased in ER-negative tumors. Taken together, our results suggest that the context of sLex expression is important in determining its functional significance and that selectins may promote metastasis in breast cancer through protein-associated sLex and heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans.

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Selectin Ligand Sialyl-Lewis x Antigen Drives Metastasis of Hormone-Dependent Breast Cancers

Bone disease is the most frequent complication in multiple myeloma (MM) resulting in osteolytic lesions, bone pain, hypercalcemia and renal failure. In MM bone disease the perfect balance between bone-resorbing osteoclasts (OCs) and bone-forming osteoblasts (OBs) activity is lost in favour of OCs, thus resulting in skeletal disorders. Since exosomes have been described for their functional role in cancer progression, we here investigate whether MM cell-derived exosomes may be involved in OCs differentiation. We show that MM cells produce exosomes which are actively internalized by Raw264.7 cell line, a cellular model of osteoclast formation. MM cell-derived exosomes positively modulate pre-osteoclast migration, through the increasing of CXCR4 expression and trigger a survival pathway. MM cell-derived exosomes play a significant pro-differentiative role in murine Raw264.7 cells and human primary osteoclasts, inducing the expression of osteoclast markers such as Cathepsin K (CTSK), Matrix Metalloproteinases 9 (MMP9) and Tartrate-resistant Acid Phosphatase (TRAP). Pre-osteoclast treated with MM cell-derived exosomes differentiate in multinuclear OCs able to excavate authentic resorption lacunae. Similar results were obtained with exosomes derived from MM patient's sera. Our data indicate that MM-exosomes modulate OCs function and differentiation. Further studies are needed to identify the OCs activating factors transported by MM cell-derived exosomes.

/pdf/involvement-of-multiple-myeloma-cell-derived-exosomes-in-1cg3xon4cj.pdf

Involvement of multiple myeloma cell-derived exosomes in osteoclast differentiation.

Tetherin (BST-2/CD317/HM1.24) is an IFN induced transmembrane protein that restricts release of a broad range of enveloped viruses. Important features required for Tetherin activity and regulation reside within the cytoplasmic domain. Here we demonstrate that two isoforms, derived by alternative translation initiation from highly conserved methionine residues in the cytoplasmic domain, are produced in both cultured human cell lines and primary cells. These two isoforms have distinct biological properties. The short isoform (s-Tetherin), which lacks 12 residues present in the long isoform (l-Tetherin), is significantly more resistant to HIV-1 Vpu-mediated downregulation and consequently more effectively restricts HIV-1 viral budding in the presence of Vpu. s-Tetherin Vpu resistance can be accounted for by the loss of serine-threonine and tyrosine motifs present in the long isoform. By contrast, the l-Tetherin isoform was found to be an activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling whereas s-Tetherin does not activate NF-κB. Activation of NF-κB requires a tyrosine-based motif found within the cytoplasmic tail of the longer species and may entail formation of l-Tetherin homodimers since co-expression of s-Tetherin impairs the ability of the longer isoform to activate NF-κB. These results demonstrate a novel mechanism for control of Tetherin antiviral and signaling function and provide insight into Tetherin function both in the presence and absence of infection.

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Identification of alternatively translated Tetherin isoforms with differing antiviral and signaling activities.

Bone metastases are frequent complications of breast cancer. Recent literature implicates multiple chemokines in the formation of bone metastases in breast cancer. However, the molecular mechanism of metastatic bone disease in breast cancer remains unknown. We have recently made the novel observation of the BST2 protein expression in human breast cancer cell lines. The purpose of our present study is to investigate the expression and the role of BST2 in bone metastatic breast cancer. cDNA microarray analysis was used to compare the BST2 gene expression between a metastatic to bone human breast cancer cell line (MDA-231BO) and a primary human breast cancer cell line (MDA-231). The BST2 expression in one bone metastatic breast cancer and seven non-bone metastatic breast cancer cell lines were also determined using real-time RT-PCR and Western blot assays. We then employed tissue array to further study the BST2 expression in human breast cancer using array slides containing 20 independent breast cancer tumors that formed metastatic bone lesions, 30 non-metastasis-forming breast cancer tumors, and 8 normal breast tissues. In order to test the feasibility of utilizing BST2 as a serum marker for the presence of bone metastasis in breast cancer, we had measured the BST2 expression levels in human serums by using ELISA on 43 breast cancer patients with bone metastasis, 43 breast cancer patients without bone metastasis, and 14 normal healthy controls. The relationship between cell migration and proliferation and BST2 expression was also studied in a human breast recombinant model system using migration and FACS analysis. The microarray demonstrated over expression of the BST2 gene in the bone metastatic breast cancer cell line (MDA-231BO) compared to the primary human breast cancer cell line (MDA-231). The expression of the BST2 gene was significantly increased in the bone metastatic breast cancer cell lines and tumor tissues compared to non-bone metastatic breast cancer cell lines and tumor tissues by real time RT-PCR, Western blot and TMA. Furthermore, serum levels of BST2 measured by ELISA were also significantly higher among patients with breast cancer metastatic to bone compared to breast cancer patients without metastatic to bone (P < .0001). Most importantly, the breast cancer cell line that transfected with BST2 demonstrated increased BST2 expressions, which was associated with increased cancer cell migration and cell proliferation. These results provide novel data indicating the BST2 protein expression is associated with the formation of bone metastases in human breast cancer. We believe that BST2 may be a potential biomarker in breast cancer with bone metastasis.

/pdf/up-regulation-of-bone-marrow-stromal-protein-2-bst2-in-3hid943go6.pdf

Jie Cao

Papers

Up-regulation of bone marrow stromal protein 2 (BST2) in breast cancer with bone metastasis