Fungi are an understudied, biotechnologically valuable group of organisms. Due to 
the immense range of habitats that fungi inhabit, and the consequent need to compete against a diverse array of other fungi, bacteria, and animals, fungi have developed numerous survival mechanisms. The unique attributes of fungi thus herald great promise for their application in biotechnology and industry. Moreover, fungi can be grown with relative ease, making production at scale viable. The search for fungal biodiversity, and the construction of a living fungi collection, both have incredible economic potential in locating organisms with novel industrial uses that will lead to novel products. This manuscript reviews fifty ways in which fungi can potentially be utilized as biotechnology. We provide notes and examples for each potential exploitation and give examples from our own work and the work of other notable researchers. We also provide a flow chart that can be used to convince funding bodies of the importance of fungi for biotechnological research and as potential products. Fungi have provided the world with penicillin, lovastatin, and other globally significant medicines, and they remain an untapped resource with enormous industrial potential.

The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially

Plant growth-promoting activities for bacterial and fungal endophytes isolated from medicinal plant of Teucrium polium L.

Biotechnological applications of fungal endophytes associated with medicinal plant Asclepias sinaica (Bioss.)

Microbes colonizing the inner part of plants, viz., root, stem, or seeds, are referred to as endophytes. Diverse groups of microbes (archaea, bacteria, and eukarya) have been reported as niche-specific endophytes allied with different crop ecosystems. Among the diverse groups, endophytic fungi may play a biological role with their host plant for different attributes. Endophytic fungi influence the development of plants by producing plant growth hormones while at the same time improving nutrition by the bidirectional transfer of nutrients and the health of plants by protecting them against pathogens. Endophytic fungal associations with plants confer protection against adverse environmental conditions such as tolerance to heavy metals (Cu, Zn, and Pb) and increased drought resistance and successfully compete with saprobic fungi. Endophytes are ubiquitous organisms valued for their ability to synthesize various bioactive compounds and have proven to be important sources of new bioactive compounds and extracellular enzymes (amylase, asparaginase cellulase, chitinase, laccase, lipase, protease, and tyrosinase). Plants infected with endophytic fungi see significant increases in biomass, improve commercial plant production, and are thus useful in agroforestry and flori-horticulture applications. Endophytic fungi are of biotechnological interest due to their potential for use as genetic vectors, biological control agents, sources of secondary metabolites, antimicrobial agents, antitumor compounds, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, producers of natural antioxidants, antiviral compounds, insecticidal products, and antidiabetic agents. This chapter presents a critical review of the isolation, characterization, identification, biodiversity, and potential applications of endophytic fungi in agriculture and allied sectors.

Biodiversity of Endophytic Fungi from Diverse Niches and Their Biotechnological Applications

Adaptation of soil microbial community structure and function to chronic metal contamination at an abandoned Pb-Zn mine

Endophytic fungi are rich in orchids and have great impacts on their host plants 53 endophytes (30 isolates from Dendrobium devonianum and 23 endophytic fungi from D thyrsiflorum) were isolated, respectively, from roots and stems of Dendrobium species All the fungi were identified by way of morphological and/or molecular biological methods 30 endophytic fungi in D devonianum were categorized into 11 taxa and 23 fungal endophytes in D thyrsiflorum were grouped into 11 genera, respectively Fusarium was the dominant species of the two Dendrobium species in common Antimicrobial activity of ethanol extract of fermentation broth of these fungi was explored using agar diffusion test 10 endophytic fungi in D devonianum and 11 in D thyrsiflorum exhibited antimicrobial activity against at least one pathogenic bacterium or fungus among 6 pathogenic microbes (Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus) Out of the fungal endophytes isolated from D devonianum and D thyrsiflorum, Phoma displayed strong inhibitory activity (inhibition zones in diameter >20 mm) against pathogens Epicoccum nigrum from D thyrsiflorum exhibited antibacterial activity even stronger than ampicillin sodium Fusarium isolated from the two Dendrobium species was effective against the pathogenic bacterial as well as fungal pathogens The study reinforced the assumption that endophytic fungi isolated from different Dendrobium species could be of potential antibacterial or antifungal resource

Antimicrobial Activity and Biodiversity of Endophytic Fungi in Dendrobium devonianum and Dendrobium thyrsiflorum from Vietman

Holcoglossum is one of the smaller genera of Orchidaceae, mainly distributed in southwest China. Some members of this genus as well as H. rupestre and H. flavescens are endemic and rare Chinese orchids. As far as we know, little work has been done concerning the relationships between the Holcoglossum plants and endophytic microorganisms. In this study, 46 culturable fungal endophytes were isolated and identified from roots of nine Holcoglossum plants collected from Yunnan, Guangxi, and Hainan provinces of China based on molecular techniques. The results showed that all strains belonged to four classes, i.e., Sordariomycetes (41.30%), Dothideomycetes (36.96%), Agaricomycetes (17.39%), Leotiomycetes (4.35%). Thirty-six strains were identified at the genus level, including Alternaria, Cladosporium, Clonostachys, Colletotrichum, Cosmospora, Cryptosporiopsis, Cylindrocarpon, Didymella, Epulorhiza (Anamorphic Tulasnella), Fusarium, Myrmecridium, Leptosphaeria, Paraconiothyrium, Phomopsis, Pyrenochaeta, and Stephanonectria. Fusarium and Epulorhiza (Anamorphic Tulasnella) were the dominant fungal endophytes. Some orchids mycorrhizal fungi as well as Tulasnella calospora and Epulorhiza sp. were found in roots. This is the first report concerning endophytic fungi from Holcoglossum plants (Orchidaceae), suggesting that endophytic fungi in Holcoglossum plants are very abundant.

Isolation and Identification of Endophytic Fungi in Roots of Nine Holcoglossum Plants (Orchidaceae) Collected from Yunnan, Guangxi, and Hainan Provinces of China

Endophytic fungi are rich in species diversity and may play an important role in the fitness of their host plants. This study investigated the diversity and antimicrobial potential of endophytic fungi obtained from Saussurea involucrata KAR. et KIR. A total of 49 endophytic fungi were isolated from S. involucrata and identified using morphological and molecular techniques. Extracts of fermentation broth from the 49 fungi were tested for antimicrobial activity against pathogenic microorganisms using the agar diffusion method. Forty-eight out of the 49 endophytic fungi were identified and grouped into 14 taxa. Cylindrocarpon sp. was the dominant species isolated from S. involucrata, followed by Phoma sp. and Fusarium sp. Among the 49 endophytic fungi, 9 root isolates having darkly pigmented, septate hyphae were identified as dark septate endophytic (DSE) fungus, and 12 fungi inhibited at least one test microorganism. Moreover, 5 strains showed a broader spectrum of antimicrobial activity and 4 strains displayed strong inhibition (+++) against pathogenic fungi. The results indicate that endophytic fungi isolated from S. involucrata are diverse in species and a potential source of antimicrobial agents.

Diversity and antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi associated with the alpine plant Saussurea involucrata.

Agilawood is a rare and valuable traditional medicine used worldwide since ancient times. However, its formation in the tree Aquilaria sinensis under natural conditions takes a long time. Fungi with high levels of bioactivity for triggering agilawood formation could enable the establishment of plantations of A. sinensis for improved production of this traditional medicine in Hainan Province, China. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the chemical components of agilawood induced in A. sinensis by inoculation with the fungus Paraconiothyrium variabile. The results using by GC-MS and HPLC indicated that sesquiterpenoids, chromones and their analogues were produced when the fungus was inoculated for 8 months into the host tree. Dibutyl phthalate and Phenol,2,2′-methylenebis[6-(1,1-dimethylethyl)- 4-methyl]-, the main components of A. sinensis, wood were converted into components of agilawood. The data showed that the fungus-induced agilawood samples were similar to natural agilawood and could be used as an agilawood substitute. This is the first time that agilawood formation has been shown to result from inoculation of A. sinensis with the bioactive fungus P. variabile.

Evaluation of fungus-induced agilawood from Aquilaria sinensis in China

OBJECTIVE To isolate and characterize endophytic fungi from seven Dendrobium species, and detect their antimicrobial activities. METHOD Fungal endophytes were isolated by strictly sterile sample preparation and fungal identification methods were based on their ITS ribosomal DNA (ITS rDNA gene) sequences. The agar well diffusion method was then employed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity against six pathogenic organisms and the phylogenetic tree of active isolates was constructed by the MEGA. RESULT Ninety-eight endophytic fungi obtained from seven Dendrobium spp., and among them twenty-four isolates, representing 11 genera and 14 species, displayed anti-microbial activities. The phylogenetic assay based on ITS-rDNA showed that 24 active isolates were sorted to 7 taxonomic orders: Hypocreales, Sordariales, Capnodiales, Eurotiales, Botryosphaeriales, Xylariales and Mucorales. The results of antimicrobial activity assay revealed that 1.02%, 10.2%, 18.4%, 1.02%, 1.02% and 10.2% of fermentation broths of 98 isolates displayed significant antimicrobial activities against E. coli, B. subtilis, S. aureus, C. albicans, C. neoformans and A. fumigatus, respectively. Four strains DL-R-3, DL-S-6, DG-R-10 and DN-S-1 displayed strong and broad antimicrobial spectrum. CONCLUSION Endophytic fungi associated with Dendrobium species have fungal diversity, and possess diverse antimicrobial activity.

Jin-Long Cui

Papers

Antimicrobial Activity and Biodiversity of Endophytic Fungi in Dendrobium devonianum and Dendrobium thyrsiflorum from Vietman

Isolation and Identification of Endophytic Fungi in Roots of Nine Holcoglossum Plants (Orchidaceae) Collected from Yunnan, Guangxi, and Hainan Provinces of China

Diversity and antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi associated with the alpine plant Saussurea involucrata.

Evaluation of fungus-induced agilawood from Aquilaria sinensis in China

Antimicrobial activity of endophytic fungi isolated from Dendrobium species in southwestern China.