A Viking Lander 1 image was modeled as mixtures of reflectance spectra of palagonite dust, gray andesitelike rock, and a coarse rocklike soil. The rocks are covered to varying degrees by dust but otherwise appear unweathered. Rocklike soil occurs as lag deposits in deflation zones around stones and on top of a drift and as a layer in a trench dug by the lander. This soil probably is derived from the rocks by wind abrasion and/or spallation. Dust is the major component of the soil and covers most of the surface. The dust is unrelated spectrally to the rock but is equivalent to the global-scale dust observed telescopically. A new method was developed to model a multispectral image as mixtures of end-member spectra and to compare image spectra directly with laboratory reference spectra. The method for the first time uses shade and secondary illumination effects as spectral end-members; thus the effects of topography and illumination on all scales can be isolated or removed. The image was calibrated absolutely from the laboratory spectra, in close agreement with direct calibrations. The method has broad applications to interpreting multispectral images, including satellite images.

Spectral mixture modeling - A new analysis of rock and soil types at the Viking Lander 1 site. [on Mars]

The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity has investigated the landing site in Eagle crater and the nearby plains within Meridiani Planum. The soils consist of fine-grained basaltic sand and a surface lag of hematite-rich spherules, spherule fragments, and other granules. Wind ripples are common. Underlying the thin soil layer, and exposed within small impact craters and troughs, are flat-lying sedimentary rocks. These rocks are finely laminated, are rich in sulfur, and contain abundant sulfate salts. Small-scale cross-lamination in some locations provides evidence for deposition in flowing liquid water. We interpret the rocks to be a mixture of chemical and siliciclastic sediments formed by episodic inundation by shallow surface water, followed by evaporation, exposure, and desiccation. Hematite-rich spherules are embedded in the rock and eroding from them. We interpret these spherules to be concretions formed by postdepositional diagenesis, again involving liquid water.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/306/5702/1698.full.pdf

The Opportunity Rover's Athena science investigation at Meridiani Planum, Mars.

The ChemCam instrument suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity provides remote compositional information using the first laser-induced breakdown spectrometer (LIBS) on a planetary mission, and provides sample texture and morphology data using a remote micro-imager (RMI). Overall, ChemCam supports MSL with five capabilities: remote classification of rock and soil characteristics; quantitative elemental compositions including light elements like hydrogen and some elements to which LIBS is uniquely sensitive (e.g., Li, Be, Rb, Sr, Ba); remote removal of surface dust and depth profiling through surface coatings; context imaging; and passive spectroscopy over the 240–905 nm range. ChemCam is built in two sections: The mast unit, consisting of a laser, telescope, RMI, and associated electronics, resides on the rover’s mast, and is described in a companion paper. ChemCam’s body unit, which is mounted in the body of the rover, comprises an optical demultiplexer, three spectrometers, detectors, their coolers, and associated electronics and data handling logic. Additional instrument components include a 6 m optical fiber which transfers the LIBS light from the telescope to the body unit, and a set of onboard calibration targets. ChemCam was integrated and tested at Los Alamos National Laboratory where it also underwent LIBS calibration with 69 geological standards prior to integration with the rover. Post-integration testing used coordinated mast and instrument commands, including LIBS line scans on rock targets during system-level thermal-vacuum tests. In this paper we describe the body unit, optical fiber, and calibration targets, and the assembly, testing, and verification of the instrument prior to launch.

/pdf/the-chemcam-instrument-suite-on-the-mars-science-laboratory-33p5aeyrhe.pdf

The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests

The past fifteen years of orbital infrared spectroscopy and in situ exploration
have led to a new understanding of the composition and history of Mars.
Globally, Mars has a basaltic upper crust with regionally variable quantities
of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine associated with distinctive terrains.
Enrichments in olivine (>20%) are found around the largest basins and
within late Noachian–early Hesperian lavas. Alkali volcanics are also locally
present, pointing to regional differences in igneous processes. Many materials
from ancient Mars bear the mineralogic fingerprints of interaction
with water. Clay minerals, found in exposures of Noachian crust across the
globe, preserve widespread evidence for early weathering, hydrothermal,
and diagenetic aqueous environments. Noachian and Hesperian sediments
include paleolake deposits with clays, carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides that
are more localized in extent. The late Hesperian to Amazonian mineralogic
record of water is sparser, though sulfates and silica in some locations indicate
local availability of ground and surface waters even in the most recent
geologic epoch.

Mineralogy of the Martian Surface

Mineral deposits on the martian surface can elucidate ancient environmental conditions on the planet. Opaline silica deposits (as much as 91 weight percent SiO2) have been found in association with volcanic materials by the Mars rover Spirit. The deposits are present both as light-toned soils and as bedrock. We interpret these materials to have formed under hydrothermal conditions and therefore to be strong indicators of a former aqueous environment. This discovery is important for understanding the past habitability of Mars because hydrothermal environments on Earth support thriving microbial ecosystems.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/320/5879/1063.full.pdf

Detection of silica-rich deposits on Mars.

[1] The Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) will provide remote measurements of mineralogy and thermophysical properties of the scene surrounding the Mars Exploration Rovers and guide the rovers to key targets for detailed in situ measurements by other rover experiments. The specific scientific objectives of the Mini-TES investigation are to (1) determine the mineralogy of rocks and soils, (2) determine the thermophysical properties of selected soil patches, and (3) determine the temperature profile, dust and water-ice opacity, and water vapor abundance in the lower atmospheric boundary layer. The Mini-TES is a Fourier Transform Spectrometer covering the spectral range 5–29 μm (339.50 to 1997.06 cm−1) with a spectral sample interval of 9.99 cm−1. The Mini-TES telescope is a 6.35-cm-diameter Cassegrain telescope that feeds a flat-plate Michelson moving mirror mounted on a voice-coil motor assembly. A single deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) uncooled pyroelectric detector with proven space heritage gives a spatial resolution of 20 mrad; an actuated field stop can reduce the field of view to 8 mrad. Mini-TES is mounted within the rover's Warm Electronics Box and views the terrain using its internal telescope looking up the hollow shaft of the Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA) to the fixed fold mirror and rotating elevation scan mirror in the PMA head located ∼1.5 m above the ground. The PMA provides a full 360°of azimuth travel and views from 30° above the nominal horizon to 50° below. An interferogram is collected every two seconds and transmitted to the Rover computer, where the Fast Fourier Transform, spectral summing, lossless compression, and data formatting are performed prior to transmission to Earth. Radiometric calibration is provided by two calibration V-groove blackbody targets instrumented with platinum thermistor temperature sensors with absolute temperature calibration of ±0.1°C. One calibration target is located inside the PMA head; the second is on the Rover deck. The Mini-TES temperature is expected to vary diurnally from −10 to +30°C, with most surface composition data collected at scene temperatures >270 K. For these conditions the radiometric precision for two-spectra summing is ±1.8 × 10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1 between 450 and 1500 cm−1, increasing to ∼4.2 × 10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1 at shorter (300 cm−1) and longer (1800 cm−1) wave numbers. The absolute radiance error will be <5 × 10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1, decreasing to ∼1 × 10−8 W cm−2 sr−1/cm−1 over the wave number range where the scene temperature will be determined (1200–1600 cm−1). The worst-case sum of these random and systematic radiance errors corresponds to an absolute temperature error of ∼0.4 K for a true surface temperature of 270 K and ∼1.5 K for a surface at 180 K. The Mini-TES will be operated in a 20-mrad panorama mode and an 8-mrad targeted mode, producing two-dimensional rasters and three-dimensional hyperspectral image cubes of varying sizes. The overall Mini-TES envelope size is 23.5 × 16.3 × 15.5 cm, and the mass is 2.40 kg. The power consumption is 5.6 W average. The Mini-TES was developed by Arizona State University and Raytheon Santa Barbara Remote Sensing.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2003JE002117

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers

The Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES) will provide remote measurements of mineralogy and thermophysical properties of the scene surrounding the Mars Exploration Rovers and guide the rovers to key targets for detailed in situ measurements by other rover experiments. The specific scientific objectives of the Mini-TES investigation are to (1) determine the mineralogy of rocks and soils, (2) determine the thermophysical properties of selected soil patches, and (3) determine the temperature profile, dust and water-ice opacity, and water vapor abundance in the lower atmospheric boundary layer. The Mini-TES is a Fourier Transform Spectrometer covering the spectral range 5-29 μm (339.50 to 1997.06 cm -1 ) with a spectral sample interval of 9.99 cm -1 . The Mini-TES telescope is a 6.35-cm-diameter Cassegrain telescope that feeds a flat-plate Michelson moving mirror mounted on a voice-coil motor assembly. A single deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) uncooled pyroelectric detector with proven space heritage gives a spatial resolution of 20 mrad; an actuated field stop can reduce the field of view to 8 mrad. Mini-TES is mounted within the rover's Warm Electronics Box and views the terrain using its internal telescope looking up the hollow shaft of the Pancam Mast Assembly (PMA) to the fixed fold mirror and rotating elevation scan mirror in the PMA head located ∼1.5 m above the ground. The PMA provides a full 360°of azimuth travel and views from 30° above the nominal horizon to 50° below. An interferogram is collected every two seconds and transmitted to the Rover computer, where the Fast Fourier Transform, spectral summing, lossless compression, and data formatting are performed prior to transmission to Earth. Radiometric calibration is provided by two calibration V-groove blackbody targets instrumented with platinum thermistor temperature sensors with absolute temperature calibration of ±0.1°C. One calibration target is located inside the PMA head; the second is on the Rover deck. The Mini-TES temperature is expected to vary diurnally from -10 to +30°C, with most surface composition data collected at scene temperatures >270 K. For these conditions the radiometric precision for two-spectra summing is ±1.8 x 10 -8 W cm -2 sr -1 /cm -1 between 450 and 1500 cm -1 , increasing to ∼4.2 x 10 -8 W cm -2 sr -1 /cm -1 at shorter (300 cm -1 ) and longer (1800 cm -1 ) wave numbers. The absolute radiance error will be <5 x 10 -8 W cm -2 sr -1 /cm -1 , decreasing to ∼1 x 10 -8 W cm -2 sr -1 /cm -1 over the wave number range where the scene temperature will be determined (1200-1600 cm -1 ). The worst-case sum of these random and systematic radiance errors corresponds to an absolute temperature error of ∼0.4 K for a true surface temperature of 270 K and ∼1.5 K for a surface at 180 K. The Mini-TES will be operated in a 20-mrad panorama mode and an 8-mrad targeted mode, producing twodimensional rasters and three-dimensional hyperspectral image cubes of varying sizes. The overall Mini-TES envelope size is 23.5 x 16.3 x 15.5 cm, and the mass is 2.40 kg. The power consumption is 5.6 W average. The Mini-TES was developed by Arizona State University and Raytheon Santa Barbara Remote Sensing.

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers : Mars exploration rover mission and landing sites

Based on technologies developed for the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Free-Flying-Magnetometer (FFM) concept, we propose to modify the present design of FFMs for detection of mines and arsenals with large magnetic signature. The result will be an integrated miniature sensor system capable of identifying local magnetic field anomaly caused by a magnetic dipole moment. Proposed integrated sensor system is in line with the JPL technology road-map for development of autonomous, intelligent, networked, integrated systems with a broad range of applications. In addition, advanced sensitive magnetic sensors (e.g., silicon micromachined magnetometer, laser pumped helium magnetometer) are being developed for future NASA space plasma probes. It is envisioned that a fleet of these Integrated Sensor Systems (ISS) units will be dispersed on a mine-field via an aerial vehicle (a low-flying airplane or helicopter). The number of such sensor systems in each fleet and the corresponding in-situ probe-grid cell size is based on the strength of magnetic anomaly of the target and ISS measurement resolution of magnetic field vector. After a specified time, ISS units will transmit the measured magnetic field and attitude data to an air-borne platform for further data processing. The cycle of data acquisition and transmission will be continued until batteries run out. Data analysis will allow a local deformation of the Earth's magnetic field vector by a magnetic dipole moment to be detected. Each ISS unit consists of miniaturized sensitive 3- axis magnetometer, high resolution analog-to-digital converter (ADC), Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)-based data subsystem, Li-batteries and power regulation circuitry, memory, S-band transmitter, single-patch antenna, and a sun angle sensor. ISS unit is packaged with non-magnetic components and the electronic design implements low-magnetic signature circuits. Care is undertaken to guarantee no corruption of magnetometer sensitivity as a result of its close proximity with the electronics and packaging materials. Accurate calibration of the magnetometer response in advance will allow removing the effects of unwanted disturbances. Improvements of the magnetometer performance in the areas of the orthogonality, drift, and temperature coefficient of offset and scale factor are required.

Multiprobe in-situ measurement of magnetic field in a minefield via a distributed network of miniaturized low-power integrated sensor systems for detection of magnetic field anomalies

Joel Rademacher

Papers

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers

Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer for the Mars Exploration Rovers : Mars exploration rover mission and landing sites

Multiprobe in-situ measurement of magnetic field in a minefield via a distributed network of miniaturized low-power integrated sensor systems for detection of magnetic field anomalies