Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

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The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.

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A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.

The greater power of bad events over good ones is found in everyday events, major life events (e.g., trauma), close relationship outcomes, social network patterns, interpersonal interactions, and learning processes. Bad emotions, bad parents, and bad feedback have more impact than good ones, and bad information is processed more thoroughly than good. The self is more motivated to avoid bad self-definitions than to pursue good ones. Bad impressions and bad stereotypes are quicker to form and more resistant to disconfirmation than good ones. Various explanations such as diagnosticity and salience help explain some findings, but the greater power of bad events is still found when such variables are controlled. Hardly any exceptions (indicating greater power of good) can be found. Taken together, these findings suggest that bad is stronger than good, as a general principle across a broad range of psychological phenomena.

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Bad is Stronger than Good

Bad is stronger than good

Mise au point sur les explications de certains biais lies aux recherches sur la formation des impressions, et presentation d'un modele fonde sur des indices de categorisation du stimulus pour rendre compte de tels biais

Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations.

Social judgment and social memory: The role of cue diagnosticity in negativity, positivity, and extremity biases.

People's recollections of the past are often positively biased. This bias has 2 causes. The 1st cause lies in people's perceptions of events. The authors review the results of several studies and p...

/pdf/life-is-pleasant-and-memory-helps-to-keep-it-that-way-1t1blrwq3n.pdf

Life Is Pleasant—and Memory Helps to Keep It That Way!

Five experiments used a relearning paradigm to determine whether people spontaneously make trait inferences from behavior descriptions. In each experiment, Ss learned actors'traits more readily after prior exposure to congruent descriptive stimuli (a «savings effect»), suggesting that implicit trait knowledge had been distilled from those descriptions. Moreover, this savings effect (a) was unaffected by Ss' processing objectives, (b) persisted for as long as a week after stimulus presentation, (c) occurred even when the original stimuli could not be recognized, and (d) could not be accounted for by priming mechanisms or differential familiarity with experimental materials. This evidence thus suggests that people do spontaneously derive trait knowledge from behavioral stimuli

https://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/66/5/840.pdf

Savings in the relearning of trait information as evidence for spontaneous inference generation.

Contents: Preface. About the Authors. Theory and Overview. The Diaries. Remembering What. Memory for Everyday Events. Emotional Pleasantness and Intensity. Effectiveness of Self-Schema in Memory. Reconstructive Memory for Time. Reconstructing Event Dates: The Effects of Retention Interval, Event sharacteristics, and Person Characteristics. Emotional Pleasant and Event Dating. The Role of the Self-Schema in the Reconstruction of Time. Overview and Summary. Appendix.

John J. Skowronski

Papers

Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations.

Social judgment and social memory: The role of cue diagnosticity in negativity, positivity, and extremity biases.

Life Is Pleasant—and Memory Helps to Keep It That Way!

Savings in the relearning of trait information as evidence for spontaneous inference generation.

Autobiographical Memory : Remembering What and Remembering When