The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first explained, followed by a brief overview of problems in self-efficacy research. Findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and academic performances are then summarized. These findings demonstrate that particularized measures of self-efficacy that correspond to the criterial tasks with which they are compared surpass global measures in the explanation and prediction of related outcomes. The conceptual difference between the definition and use of expectancy beliefs in social cognitive theory and in expectancy value and self-concept theory is then clarified. Last, strategies to guide future research are offered.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings

The construct of self-efficacy has received increasing empirical attention in the organizational behavior literature. People who think they can perform well on a task do better than those who think they will fail. Differences in self-efficacy are associated with bona fide differences in skill level; however, efficacy perceptions also may be influenced by differences in personality, motivation, and the task itself. This article reviews theoretically the antecedent processes and information cues involved in the formation of self-efficacy. A model of the determinants of self-efficacy is proposed that enhances understanding of both the complexity and malleability of the construct. Determinants that facilitate the most immediate change in self-efficacy are identified, and appropriate change strategies are highlighted. Implications and propositions pertaining to future research are discussed at the end of the article.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/258770.pdf

Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability

Self-efficacy (one's belief in one's capability to perform a task) affects task effort, persistence, expressed interest, and the level of goal difficulty selected for performance. Despite this, lit...

Self-Efficacy: Implications for Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management

Current developments in cognitive and emotion theory suggest that anxiety plays a rather central role in negative emotions. This article reviews findings in the area of anxiety and depression, helplessness, locus of control, explanatory style, animal learning, biology, parenting, attachment theory, and childhood stress and resilience to articulate a model of the environmental influences on the development of anxiety. Evidence from a variety of sources suggests that early experience with diminished control may foster a cognitive style characterized by an increased probability of interpreting or processing subsequent events as out of one's control, which may represent a psychological vulnerability for anxiety. Implications for research are discussed.

The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment.

Stress inoculation training originally referred to a relatively specific set of operations (Meichenbaum & Cameron, 1972) In order to evaluate the efficacy of a skills training approach to anxiety management, a study was conducted using phobia as a target problem Treatment involved three phases It began with an educational phase that clarified the cognitive, affective, and physiological concomitants of the client’s avoidant behavior The Schachter (1966) model of emotion was presented to the client, who was encouraged to view anxiety as a reaction involving negative self-statements and images and physiological arousal It was suggested that acquisition of two skills, namely, coping self-statements and self-directed relaxation, would help ameliorate the problem This initial phase was followed by a skills training phase: specific types of coping self-statements and relaxation skills were learned and rehearsed Finally, during an application phase, the client actually tested out the skills in a stressful laboratory situation (unpredictable electric shock was administered) This treatment was found to be more effective than imaginal systematic desensitization, then the standard treatment for phobia

Stress inoculation training

Perceived self-efficacy was introduced by Bandura (1977) as “an integrative theoretical framework to explain and predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment” (p. 191). Subsequent empirical studies appear to support the contention that self-efficacy ratings on specific behavioral tasks are accurate predictors of subsequent behavioral performance on those tasks. In this paper we examine the conceptual basis of self-efficacy theory. In particular, the distinction between outcome and efficacy expectations is analyzed in relation to fear and avoidant behavior. We conclude that self-efficacy theory is conceptually problematic and, in particular, that the central concept of efficacy expectations is not unambiguously differentiated from outcome expectations, despite Bandura's (1978) claim to the contrary. Similarly, we suggest that what is actually being assessed in the empirical studies is unclear. We conclude that the empirical findings are less impressive when the circumscribed nature of the behavioral tasks is recognized. Finally, we suggest that resolutions of both the conceptual and methodological difficulties are necessary before Bandura's (1978) claim, that self-efficacy is a unifying construct, can be properly evaluated.

Theoretical and methodological difficulties in Bandura's self-efficacy theory

Social skills training with adolescent male offenders--II. Short-term, long-term and generalized effects.

A controlled evaluation of systematic desensitisation and social skills training for socially inadequate psychiatric patients

Social skills training with adolescent male offenders: I. Short-term effects.

In an investigation of hypotheses proposed by Lang (1977) on psychophysiological correlates of emotional imagery, 24 subjects were assigned to two equal-sized groups. A stimulus group was presented, on 2 occasions, 6 image scripts, 3 of an arousing kind and 3 of a relaxing kind, in which stimulus propositions were stressed. A response group was treated identically except that the scripts stressed response rather than stimulus propositions; further, in the response group each pair of arousing and relaxing scripts separately emphasized either cardiovascular activity, respiration or sudomotor activity, in order to assess the degree of specificity in response-proposition relationships. Psychophysiological measures of heart rate, respiration and skin resistance, and self-report measures of imagery vividness, general arousal, and compliance with imagery instructions were taken after each imagery trial.



Analysis of the psychophysiological measures indicated that, in line with Lang's predictions, the response group showed significantly greater changes in heart rate and respiration to the arousing scenes than the stimulus group. No significant differences, however, were found for skin resistance. Moreover, there were no differences between the groups on any measures when the relaxing scenes were imagined. The groups did not differ reliably on any of the self-report measures. Contrary to Lang's theory, however, little specificity in response-proposition relationships was found. Rather, the present data suggest that certain psychophysiological propositions, in particular cardiovascular propositions, are generally more effective in eliciting fairly widespread psychophysiological changes. Further, a close coupling between heart rate and respiration rate was observed in this experiment.

John S. Marzillier

Papers

Theoretical and methodological difficulties in Bandura's self-efficacy theory

Social skills training with adolescent male offenders--II. Short-term, long-term and generalized effects.

A controlled evaluation of systematic desensitisation and social skills training for socially inadequate psychiatric patients

Social skills training with adolescent male offenders: I. Short-term effects.

Psychophysiological changes accompanying different types of arousing and relaxing imagery.