The authors conceptualize these memory systems from both behavioural and neurobiological perspectives, guided by three related principles: * First, that our understanding of a wide range of memory phenomena can be advanced by breaking down memory into multiple forms with different operating characteristics. * Second, that different forms of memory representation are supported by distinct brain pathways with circuitry and neural coding properties. * Third, that the contributions of different brain systems can be compared and contrasted by distinguishing between dedicated (or specific) and elaborate (or general) memory systems. A primary goal of this work is to relate the neurobiological properties of dedicated and elaborate systems to their neuropsychological counterparts, and in so doing, account for the phenomenology of memory, from conditioning to conscious recollection.

From Conditioning to Conscious Recollection Memory Systems of the Brain. Oxford Psychology Series, Volume 35.

Many advertisers have argued that 15-second television commercials should be used only to reinforce effects created by longer commercials. However, this recommendation is based on studies that have several weaknesses, including use of single exposure levels, established commercials, and learning as the primary dependent variable. Reported are the findings of a laboratory experiment which compares the effectiveness of 15-second television commercials and 30-second television commercials by using novel commercials with different message appeals (informational vs. emotional), exposing subjects multiple times, and employing multiple dependent variables. Results indicate that informational 15-second commercials are as effective as informational 30-second commercials in several situations and can be used as standalone units. It is also shown that emotional 30-second commercials are superior to emotional 15-second commercials in influencing a viewer's learning of brand name and attitude. The reasons for and the implications of these findings are considered.

The Effects of Length, Content, and Repetition on Television Commercial Effectiveness

Purpose
For many consumer neuromarketing researchers, the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging has been the most preferred neuroscience technique. However, electroencephalography, eye tracking, and implicit measurements are becoming increasingly popular market research methods due to rapid technological improvements and reduced costs.

Design
This article is an overview of the most commonly used consumer neuroscience techniques in marketing research.
Findings

Many peer-reviewed journal articles in the consumer neuroscience literature usually provide only a brief summary of the actual functions of each neuroscience technique used in their research. Throughout the consumer neuroscience and marketing research literature, there is a lack of comprehensive evaluation of the relative merits of all neuroscience research tools. There is no rigorous analysis of the relative appropriateness of all the neuroscience, physiological, and biometric research tools currently used in consumer neuroscience market research.

Originality/value
This is the first paper that provides a comprehensive review of all relevant neuroscience techniques with a proper explanation of their functions and utility for different types of research. Each individual neuromarketing research tools' strengths and weaknesses are analysed for particular types of marketing research questions and highlights some of the key research papers and authors for interested researchers to follow up.

Consumer neuroscience for marketing researchers

Purpose




This paper aims to review past papers focused on understanding consumer-related topics in marketing and related interdisciplinary fields to demonstrate the applications of electroencephalogram (EEG) in consumer neuroscience.




Design/methodology/approach




In addition to the review of papers using EEG to study consumer cognitive processes, the authors also discuss relevant decisions and considerations in conducting event-related potential (ERP) studies. Further, a framework proposed by Plassmann et al. (2015) was used to discuss the applications of EEG in marketing research from papers reviewed.




Findings




This paper successfully used Plassmann et al.’s (2015) framework to discuss five applications of neuroscience to marketing research. A review of growing EEG studies in the field of marketing and other interdisciplinary fields reveals the advantages and potential of using EEG in combination with other methods. This calls for more research using such methods.




Research limitations/implications




A technical overview of ERP-related terminology provides researchers with a background for understanding and reviewing ERP studies. A discussion of method-related considerations and decisions provides marketing researchers with an introduction to the method and refers readers to relevant literature.




Practical implications




The marketing industry has been quick to adopt cutting edge technology, including EEG, to understand and predict consumer behavior for the purpose of improving marketing practices. This paper connects the academic and practitioner spheres by presenting past and potential EEG research that can be translatable to the marketing industry.




Originality/value




The authors review past literature on the use of EEG to study consumer-related topics in marketing and interdisciplinary fields, to demonstrate its advantages over-traditional methods in studying consumer-relevant behaviors. To foster increasing use of EEG in consumer neuroscience research, the authors further provide technical and marketing-specific considerations for both academic and market researchers. This paper is one of the first to review past EEG papers and provide methodological background insights for marketing researchers.

Applying EEG in consumer neuroscience

In the last decade, neuroscience has informed the marketing science in meaningful ways and the interaction between both of these sciences has helped in generating deeper insights into the consumer behavior. This has led to the emergence of a new field of study, termed as neuromarketing or consumer neuroscience. This article introduces the readers to this emerging field in marketing literature and practice. It gives an overview of the applications of neuroscience in addressing marketing and consumer behavior research. The article then discusses the role which neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience is expected to play in shaping the future marketing practices. It also introduces the readers to some methodological concepts of neuromarketing along with some progresses in fundamental neuroscience which are likely to advance this field in turn enhancing the rigor of the neuromarketing studies.

Neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience: current understanding and the way forward

Using the P3a to gauge automatic attention to interactive television advertising

Background: Flow states are considered a positive, subjective experience during an optimal balance between skills and task demands. Previously, experimentally induced flow experiences have relied solely on adaptive tasks. Objective: To investigate whether cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) area and anodal tDCS over the right parietal cortex area during video game play will promote an increased experience of flow states. Methods: Two studies had participants play Tetris or first-person shooter (FPS) video games while receiving either real tDCS or sham stimulation. Tetris recruited 21 untrained players who infrequently played video games while the 11 FPS participants played FPS frequently. Flow experience was assessed before and after stimulation. Results: Compared to sham stimulation, real stimulation increased flow experience for both untrained Tetris and trained FPS players. Improved performance effects were only seen with untrained groups. Conclusion: Cathodal and anodal tDCS over the left DLPFC and right parietal areas, respectively may encourage flow experiences in complex real-life motor tasks that occur during sports, games, and everyday life.

/pdf/a-transcranial-stimulation-intervention-to-support-flow-4o1c8eo7zp.pdf

A Transcranial Stimulation Intervention to Support Flow State Induction

Flow states have been shown to help people reach peak performance, yet this elusive state is not easily attained. The review describes the current state of literature on flow by addressing the environmental influences as well as the cognitive and neurocognitive elements that underlie the experience. In particular, the research focusses on the transition of cognitive control from an explicit to an implicit process. This is further expanded upon to look at the current, yet related neurocognitive research of high performance associated with the implicit process of automaticity. Finally, the review focusses on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) as a novel method to facilitates an induction of flow states. Implications are aimed at a general technique to improve on skill acquisition and overall performance.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/10/9/137/pdf

A Review on the Role of the Neuroscience of Flow States in the Modern World.

This paper is the first step to an understanding of how engagement with interactive television advertisements may increase the relevancy of a brand and therefore facilitate the automatic processing of the brand's logo (measured via the P3a) after viewing the advertisement, compared to non-interactive television ads. Event-related potentials (ERPs) and attitudes were measured in response to advertisement-specific brands. ERP latencies and self-report measures were analysed with mixed design analysis of variance. P3a latency decreased for the brands associated with the longer interactive ads, but remained stable for the brands associated with the normal ads and increased for the control brands. This indicates that automatic attention was greater for those brands which were associated with the longer Dedicated Advertiser Location (DAL) interactive ads in the ad reel. The findings of this analysis suggest that brands associated with interactive ads do have more attention automatically allocated to them.

Joshua Gold

Papers

Using the P3a to gauge automatic attention to interactive television advertising

A Transcranial Stimulation Intervention to Support Flow State Induction

A Review on the Role of the Neuroscience of Flow States in the Modern World.

Using the P3a to gauge automatic attention to interactive television advertising

A neurocognitive model of flow states and the role of cerebellar internal models.