Background Anemia, a morbid condition, is a global concern that affects people of all age groups. This scenario has attracted the attention of several government organizations for implementing strict regulations to provide nutritional security. Iron fortification and supplementation has been in practice from the past decades. However, there is a need for determining an effective strategy to address this rising concern among the vulnerable population. Scope and approach Among the existing approaches, iron fortification of foods remains to be cheaper and effective in targeting large-scale population without the intervention of pharmaceutical drugs. The key challenge is the bioavailability of iron from fortified foods. Thus, this work presents a comprehensive review of morbidities of anemia, causes, the significance of haem and non-haem iron, absorption, and bioavailability, in context with different iron fortification approaches. Key findings Apart from the nutritional deficit, anemia is also associated with a sedentary lifestyle linked with obesity and diabetes. The complex interaction of elemental iron and its physiology have been highlighted in consideration with potential iron enhancers and inhibitors. It was found that the incorporation of haem iron would complement the effectiveness of non-haem iron through fortification. Several iron fortification techniques focused on combating iron deficiency have been described. Conclusions Food fortification is a promising strategy for reducing the prevalence of anemia. Food vehicles must be designed considering its synergistic effects with iron complexes for effective absorption and bioavailability. However, the scalability, cost economics, safety concerns and acceptability of the iron-fortified foods remain as constraints that have to be addressed. Further, the application of novel food processing techniques with food fortification can result in the emergence of novel approaches for addressing iron deficiency and anemia.

Iron deficiency anemia: A comprehensive review on iron absorption, bioavailability and emerging food fortification approaches

Chlorogenic acids (CGAs), a group of hydroxycinnamates, are generally abundant in everyday foods and beverages, most prominently in certain coffee drinks. Among them, the chlorogenic acid (CGA), also termed as 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), is one of the most abundant, highly functional polyphenolic compounds in the human diet. The evidence of its health benefits obtained from clinical studies, as well as basic research, indicates an inverse correlation between 5-CQA consumption and a lower risk of metabolic syndromes and chronic diseases. This review focuses on the beneficial properties for health and mechanisms of action of 5-CQA, starting with its history, isomers, dietary sources, processing effects, preparation methods, pharmacological safety evaluation, and bioavailability. It also provides the possible molecular mechanistic bases to explain the health beneficial effects of 5-CQA including neuroprotective, cardiovascular protective, gastrointestinal protective, renoprotective, hepatoprotective, glucose and lipid metabolism regulatory, and anticarcinogenic effects. The information summarized here could aid in the basic and clinical research on 5-CQA as a natural dietary additive, potential drug candidate, as well as a natural health promoter.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1541-4337.12620

Chlorogenic acid: A comprehensive review of the dietary sources, processing effects, bioavailability, beneficial properties, mechanisms of action, and future directions.

Acyl-quinic acids (chlorogenic acids) are produced by many plants, including fruits, vegetables, and herbal remedies, with coffee and mate particularly rich dietary sources. Epidemiological and intervention studies suggest that they can reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. This review addresses their metabolic handling after oral consumption to provide a mechanistic basis to explain their possible effects on health. Intact acyl-quinic acids are absorbed only to a small extent in the small intestine, but the cinnamic acids are efficiently absorbed after hydrolysis by either digestive or microbial enzymes in the colon. Metabolism results in phenolic conjugates in the blood and urine, but varying dependent on the acyl-quinic acid, and subject to significant interperson variability. The balance between hydrogenation and complete β-oxidation of the cinnamic acids, both by liver and gut microbiota, determines the profile of metabolites. Pharmacokinetic data suggest that some metabolites are bound to human serum albumin and/or sequestered in tissues, and some exhibit biological activity in vitro, consistent with proposed protective action in vivo. Significant gaps in the literature include lack of plasma and urinary data for free-living individuals, and pharmacokinetic data for groups who consume coffee or mate at regular short intervals. Data are required for cis isomers. There is a critical need for precise urinary biomarkers of consumption of acyl-quinic acids, accounting for variability in individual metabolism and in beverage composition, thus facilitating better translation of urinary metabolite measurements into accurate coffee consumption data to improve the outcomes of future epidemiological and intervention studies.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1541-4337.12518

Bioavailability and metabolism of chlorogenic acids (acyl-quinic acids) in humans.

Chlorogenic acids (CGA) are the main antioxidant compounds in the Western diet, due to their high concentrations in coffee associated with the high consumption of the beverage. Until about 10 years ago, like many other phenolic compounds, CGA were thought to be poorly absorbed in the human digestive system. Along the years, large amounts of information on the absorption and metabolism of these compounds have been unveiled, and today, it is known that, on average, about one third of the consumed CGA from coffee is absorbed in the human gastrointestinal tract, although large inter-individual variation exists. Considering results from in vitro animal and human studies, it is possible to conclude that the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of coffee CGA are responsible for, at least to a certain extent, the association between coffee consumption and lower incidence of various degenerative and non-degenerative diseases, in addition to higher longevity.

https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5710/5/1/11/pdf

Consumption of Chlorogenic Acids through Coffee and Health Implications

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is the most consumed psychoactive substance in the world, acting by means of antagonism to adenosine receptors, mainly A1 and A2A. Coffee is the main natural source of the alkaloid which is quite soluble and well extracted during the brew’s preparation. After consumption, caffeine is almost completely absorbed and extensively metabolized in the liver by phase I (cytochrome P450) enzymes, mainly CYP1A2, which appears to be polymorphically distributed in human populations. Paraxanthine is the major caffeine metabolite in plasma, while methylated xanthines and methyluric acids are the main metabolites excreted in urine. In addition to stimulating the central nervous system, caffeine exerts positive effects in the body, often in association with other substances, contributing to prevention of several chronic diseases. The potential adverse effects of caffeine have also been extensively studied in animal species and in humans. These aspects will be approached in the present review.

https://www.mdpi.com/2306-5710/5/2/37/pdf

Caffeine Consumption through Coffee: Content in the Beverage, Metabolism, Health Benefits and Risks

Homeopathic medicine of Melissa officinalis combined or not with Phytolacca decandra in the treatment of possible sleep bruxism in children: A crossover randomized triple-blinded controlled clinical trial

Ilex paraguariensis (mate) is one of the best sources of chlorogenic acids (CGA) in nature. When leaves are toasted, some isomers are partly transformed into 1,5-γ-quinolactones (CGL). Both CGA and CGL are important contributors to the brew’s flavor and are thought to contribute to human health. In this study, we quantified 9 CGA, 2 CGL, and caffeic acid in 20 samples of dried green and toasted mate that are commercially available in Brazil. Total CGA content in green mate varied from 8.7 to 13.2 g/100 g, dry weight (dw). Caffeic acid content varied from 10.8 to 13.5 mg/100 g dw, respectively. Content in toasted mate varied from 1.5 to 4.6 g/100 g and from 1.5 to 7.2 mg/100 g dw, respectively. Overall, caffeoylquinic acid isomers (CQA) were the most abundant CGA in both green and toasted mate, followed by dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQA) and feruloylquinic acids (FQA). These classes accounted for 58.5%, 40.0%, and 1.5% of CGA, respectively, in green mate and 76.3%, 20.7%, and 3.0%, respectively, in toasted ...

Distribution of Major Chlorogenic Acids and Related Compounds in Brazilian Green and Toasted Ilex paraguariensis (Maté) Leaves

Methylxanthines in stimulant foods and beverages commonly consumed in brazil

Chlorogenic acids (CGA) are the main antioxidant compounds in the Western diet, due to their high concentrations in coffee associated with the high consumption of the beverage. Until about 10 years ago, like many other phenolic compounds, CGA were thought to be poorly absorbed in the human digestive system. Over the years, a large amount of information on the absorption and metabolism of these compounds have been unveiled, and today it is known that, on average, about one-third of the consumed CGA from coffee is absorbed in the human gastrointestinal tract, although a large inter-individual variation exists. Together with results from in vitro and animal studies, chlorogenic acids bioavailability supports, at least partly, the association between coffee consumption and lower incidence of various degenerative and non-degenerative diseases, in addition to higher longevity. Intestinal bacteria play an important role in the metabolization of the unabsorbed consumed CGA and probably also in the reabsorption of CGA excreted in digestive fluids.

Juliana de Paula Lima

Papers

Consumption of Chlorogenic Acids through Coffee and Health Implications

Homeopathic medicine of Melissa officinalis combined or not with Phytolacca decandra in the treatment of possible sleep bruxism in children: A crossover randomized triple-blinded controlled clinical trial

Distribution of Major Chlorogenic Acids and Related Compounds in Brazilian Green and Toasted Ilex paraguariensis (Maté) Leaves

Methylxanthines in stimulant foods and beverages commonly consumed in brazil

CHAPTER 16:Chlorogenic Acids: Daily Consumption Through Coffee, Metabolism and Potential Health Effects