Multiple abnormalities occur in the homeostasis of essential endogenous brain biometals in age-related neurodegenerative disorders, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. As a result, metals both accumulate in microscopic proteinopathies, and can be deficient in cells or cellular compartments. Therefore, bulk measurement of metal content in brain tissue samples reveal only the "tip of the iceberg", with most of the important changes occurring on a microscopic and biochemical level. Each of the major proteins implicated in these disorders interacts with biological transition metals. Tau and the amyloid protein precursor have important roles in normal neuronal iron homeostasis. Changes in metal distribution, cellular deficiencies, or sequestration in proteinopathies all present abnormalities that can be corrected in animal models by small molecules. These biochemical targets are more complex than the simple excess of metals that are targeted by chelators. In this review we illustrate some of the richness in the science that has developed in the study of metals in neurodegeneration, and explore its novel pharmacology.

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Biological metals and metal-targeting compounds in major neurodegenerative diseases.

One of the grand challenges of biophysical chemistry is to understand the principles that govern protein misfolding and aggregation, which is a highly complex process that is sensitive to initial conditions, operates on a huge range of length- and timescales, and has products that range from protein dimers to macroscopic amyloid fibrils. Aberrant aggregation is associated with more than 25 diseases, which include Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and type II diabetes. Amyloid aggregation has been extensively studied in the test tube, therefore under conditions that are far from physiological relevance. Hence, there is dire need to extend these investigations to in vivo conditions where amyloid formation is affected by a myriad of biochemical interactions. As a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, these interactions need to be understood in detail to develop novel therapeutic interventions, as millions of people globally suffer from neurodegenerative disorders and type II diabetes. The aim of this review is to document the progress in the research on amyloid formation from a physicochemical perspective with a special focus on the physiological factors influencing the aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide, the islet amyloid polypeptide, α-synuclein, and the hungingtin protein.

Effects of in vivo conditions on amyloid aggregation.

The Amyloid beta peptide (Ab) is related to Alzheimer’s disease and is suggested to be the molecular pathogenic species of the disease, probably through the neurotoxic effect of Ab oligomers. Here the results from biophysical studies of Ab and fragments thereof, are presented. Pulsed field gradient NMR diffusion experiments show that Ab exists mainly as an unfolded monomer. In addition, the hydrodynamic radius of Ab suggests that Ab has residual secondary structure propensities. CD experiments reveal that Ab has a high propensity to adopt a polyproline type II (PII) helix at low temperature. NMR diffusion measurements as well as the 3JHNH values show that increasing the temperature from 4 C induces a structure transition from PII propensity to a beta strand propensity around 15 C and to a random coil conformation at higher temperature. The small hydrodynamic radius at low temperature may be explained by the presence of a population of a hairpin conformation as was suggested by MD simulations. 15N relaxation and secondary chemical shifts suggest that Ab consists of 6 structural regions, two regions with high PII propensity are separated by a highly mobile region located in the N-terminal part of the peptide. In the C-terminal part two regions with a propensity to adopt b-strand are located, separated by a mobile region. The structural propensities of soluble monomeric Ab agree well with the structure of the peptide in fibril aggregates as well as in SDS micelles. Ab binds zinc specifically and with high affinity. This interaction was studied using heteronuclear correlation experiments. The metal ligands were determined to be three histidines, 6,13 and 14 and the N-terminus. The Ab peptide also binds b-cyclodextrin and the combined use of NMR diffusion experiments and induced chemical shifts show that Ab has at least two binding sites for b-cyclodextrin, and the dissociation constants of these binding sites were determined.

Structure and positioning of the Alzheimer Aβ(1-40) peptide in SDS micelles using NMR and paramagnetic probes

Cross-interactions between the Alzheimer Disease Amyloid-β Peptide and Other Amyloid Proteins: A Further Aspect of the Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis

The deposition of amyloid in brain tissue in the context of neurodegenerative diseases involves the formation of intermediate species-termed oligomers-of lower molecular mass and with structures that deviate from those of mature amyloid fibrils. Because these oligomers are thought to be primarily responsible for the subsequent disease pathogenesis, the elucidation of their structure is of enormous interest. Nevertheless, because of the high aggregation propensity and the polydispersity of oligomeric species formed by the proteins or peptides in question, the preparation of appropriate samples for high-resolution structural methods has proven to be rather difficult. This is why theoretical approaches have been of particular importance in gaining insights into possible oligomeric structures for some time. Only recently has it been possible to achieve some progress with regard to the experimentally based structural characterization of defined oligomeric species. Here we discuss how theory and experiment are used to determine oligomer structures and what can be done to improve the integration of the two disciplines.

An Account of Amyloid Oligomers: Facts and Figures Obtained from Experiments and Simulations.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common of the protein misfolding ("amyloid") diseases. The deposits in the brains of afflicted patients contain as a major fraction an aggregated insoluble form of the so-called amyloid β-peptides (Aβ peptides): fragments of the amyloid precursor protein of 39-43 residues in length. This review focuses on biophysical studies of the Aβ peptides: that is, of the aggregation pathways and intermediates observed during aggregation, of the molecular structures observed along these pathways, and of the interactions of Aβ with Cu and Zn ions and with small molecules that modify the aggregation pathways. Particular emphasis is placed on studies based on high-resolution and solid-state NMR methods. Theoretical studies relating to the interactions are also included. An emerging picture is that of Aβ peptides in aqueous solution undergoing hydrophobic collapse together with identical partners. There then follows a relatively slow process leading to more ordered secondary and tertiary (quaternary) structures in the growing aggregates. These aggregates eventually assemble into elongated fibrils visible by electron microscopy. Small molecules or metal ions that interfere with the aggregation processes give rise to a variety of aggregation products that may be studied in vitro and considered in relation to observations in cell cultures or in vivo. Although the heterogeneous nature of the processes makes detailed structural studies difficult, knowledge and understanding of the underlying physical chemistry might provide a basis for future therapeutic strategies against the disease. A final part of the review deals with the interactions that may occur between the Aβ peptides and the prion protein, where the latter is involved in other protein misfolding diseases.

Jyri Jarvet

Papers

Biophysical studies of the amyloid β-peptide: interactions with metal ions and small molecules

Biophysical Studies of the Amyloid β‐Peptide: Interactions with Metal Ions and Small Molecules

Biophysical Studies of the Amyloid Beta Peptide Involved in Alzheimer's Disease

Mercury and Alzheimers Disease: HG(II) Ions Display Specific Binding to the Amyloid-Beta Peptide and Modulate its Aggregation