/pdf/social-psychology-handbook-of-basic-principles-5cncpuwpen.pdf

Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles

The hypothesis that possessing multiple subordinate-group identities renders a person “invisible” relative to those with a single subordinate-group identity is developed. We propose that androcentric, ethnocentric, and heterocentric ideologies will cause people who have multiple subordinate-group identities to be defined as non-prototypical members of their respective identity groups. Because people with multiple subordinate-group identities (e.g., ethnic minority woman) do not fit the prototypes of their respective identity groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, women), they will experience what we have termed “intersectional invisibility.” In this article, our model of intersectional invisibility is developed and evidence from historical narratives, cultural representations, interest-group politics, and anti-discrimination legal frameworks is used to illustrate its utility. Implications for social psychological theory and research are discussed.

/pdf/intersectional-invisibility-the-distinctive-advantages-and-39nd4f2oqe.pdf

Intersectional Invisibility: The Distinctive Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Subordinate-Group Identities

How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! Follow this and additional works at: http://academicworks.cuny.edu/jj_pubs Part of the Courts Commons, Criminal Law Commons, Criminal Procedure Commons, Criminology Commons, Judges Commons, Law and Politics Commons, Law and Society Commons, Law Enforcement and Corrections Commons, Legislation Commons, Politics and Social Change Commons, and the Race and Ethnicity Commons

/pdf/the-growth-of-incarceration-in-the-united-states-exploring-212x90j52g.pdf

The growth of incarceration in the United States: exploring causes and consequences

Using police officers and undergraduates as participants, the authors investigated the influence of stereotypic associations on visual processing in 5 studies. Study 1 demonstrates that Black faces influence participants' ability to spontaneously detect degraded images of crime-relevant objects. Conversely, Studies 2-4 demonstrate that activating abstract concepts (i.e., crime and basketball) induces attentional biases toward Black male faces. Moreover, these processing biases may be related to the degree to which a social group member is physically representative of the social group (Studies 4-5). These studies, taken together, suggest that some associations between social groups and concepts are bidirectional and operate as visual tuning devices--producing shifts in perception and attention of a sort likely to influence decision making and behavior.

/pdf/seeing-black-race-crime-and-visual-processing-2gs08e9fk3.pdf

Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing

Mindfulness as depicted by Levinthal and Rerup (2006) involves encoding ambiguous outcomes in ways that influence learning, and encoding stimuli in ways that match context with a repertoire of routines. We add to Levinthal and Rerup's conjectures by examining Western and Eastern versions of mindfulness and how they function as a process of knowing an object. In our expanded view, encoding becomes less central. What becomes more central are activities such as altering the codes, differentiating the codes, introspecting the coding process itself, and, most of all, reducing the overall dependence on coding and codes. Consequently, we shift from Levinthal and Rerup's contrast between mindful and less mindful to a contrast between conceptual and less conceptual. When people move away from conceptuality and encoding, outcomes are affected more by the quality than by the quantity of attention.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/25146054

Mindfulness and the Quality of Organizational Attention

Although evidence from a variety of disciplines suggests that skin tone is a basis of discrimination among Blacks, research in social psychology has virtually ignored this topic. Two experiments examined the causal role of skin tone in the perception and representations of Blacks. Paralleling the effect of race and other social category dimensions, Study 1 showed that variation in skin tone can influence the organization of social information. Study 2 demonstrated differentiation in stereotypes of Blacks based on skin tone. Results from both investigations suggest that skin tone is an important factor in both Blacks’ and Whites’ representations of Blacks.

Cognitive Representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the Role of Skin Tone

This article reviews research examining racial phenotypicality bias--within-category stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination based on race-related phenotypic characteristics of the face. A literature review of research examining skin tone bias, drawing largely from work examining perceptions of Blacks in the United States, reveals that individuals with features typical of members of their racial category are perceived and treated more negatively by social perceivers. Furthermore, this treatment has broad implications for social status and health. Despite this evidence, the tendency to attend to and use within-race variation in phenotypic appearance has been overlooked in social psychological models of impression formation. However, several theoretical frameworks have recently been proposed to explain the role of phenotype-based expectancies in social representation and judgment. Drawing on the strengths of each perspective, a rudimentary model of racial phenotypicality bias is proposed. This analysis suggests that future examinations guided by the current framework (or similar others) can complement existing evidence toward a greater understanding of the role of phenotypic variation in social perception.

Perspectives on Racial Phenotypicality Bias

An experiment examined the extent to which viewers’ emotional discomfort with a crime story and perceptions and memorability of a perpetrator and victim could be influenced by the race and skin tone of the perpetrator portrayed in a newscast. Participants were exposed either to a White, light-skinned Black, medium-skinned Black, or dark-skinned Black perpetrator. In addition, participants provided self-reports of their news viewing habits. Results revealed that heavy television news viewers were more likely than light viewers to feel emotional discomfort after being exposed to the dark-skinned Black perpetrator. Heavy news viewers also had favorable perceptions of the victim when the perpetrator was Black, regardless of skin tone. Results also indicated that all participants, regardless of prior news exposure, found the perpetrator more memorable when the perpetrator was a dark-skinned Black male. The methodological and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

/pdf/skin-tone-crime-news-and-social-reality-judgments-priming-1ggx3ikwtz.pdf

Skin tone, crime news, and social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark and dangerous black criminal.

Previous work has shown differential amygdala response to African-American faces by Caucasian individuals. Furthermore, behavioral studies have demonstrated the existence of skin tone bias, the tendency to prefer light skin to dark skin. In the present study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate whether skin tone bias moderates differential race-related amygdala activity. Eleven White participants viewed photographs of unfamiliar Black and White faces with varied skin tone (light, dark). Replicating past research, greater amygdala activity was observed for Black faces than White faces. Furthermore, dark-skinned targets elicited more amygdala activity than light-skinned targets. However, these results were qualified by a significant interaction between race and skin tone, such that amygdala activity was observed at equivalent levels for light- and dark-skinned Black targets, but dark-skinned White targets elicited greater amygdala activity than light-skinned White targets.

/pdf/the-effects-of-skin-tone-on-race-related-amygdala-activity-1ohrmcjva8.pdf

The effects of skin tone on race-related amygdala activity: an fMRI investigation

Guided by the model of social category salience proposed by M. Blanz (1999), the present paper explores factors affecting the salience of skin tone-based subcategories among Blacks in the United States. Adapting the group discussion paradigm developed by S.E. Taylor and colleagues (1978), Experiment 1 demonstrated that a manipulation of issue relevance enhanced the category salience of skin tone. Participants made more within- than between-category errors when the topic of conversation was related to perceiver’s skin tone-based beliefs. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the influence of the issue relevance manipulation was independent of the presence of structural and/or normative fit. Merely discussing the topic of race relations was sufficient to increase encoding and use of skin tone. These studies provide evidence linking skin tone and social beliefs in memory. In addition, they demonstrate support for a category-based perspective in the study of skin tone bias. Additional factors affecting the salience of skin tone are discussed. Copyright # 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. A great deal of social psychological theory and research has focused on the consequences of racial categorization in social perception. It is well known that people vary on numerous dimensions of phenotypic facial appearance. Racial categorization is the process by which social perceivers use these characteristics to parse the continuum of human beings into distinct, socially meaningful categories. For example, individuals categorized as ‘Black’ typically have dark skin colour, broad noses, full lips, short, tightly curled hair, and dark eye colour (Afrocentric features). Likewise, individuals categorized as ‘White’ tend to display characteristics on the opposite end of the continuum: light skin colour, narrow noses, thin lips, long, straight hair, and light eye colour (Eurocentric features). However, using these same phenotypic physical features, the social continuum may be further divided into race-related subcategories that also have social meaning and consequences. Within the range of individuals categorized as Black in the United States, darker skin tone is associated with lower levels of

Keith B. Maddox

Papers

Cognitive Representations of Black Americans: Reexploring the Role of Skin Tone

Perspectives on Racial Phenotypicality Bias

Skin tone, crime news, and social reality judgments: Priming the stereotype of the dark and dangerous black criminal.

The effects of skin tone on race-related amygdala activity: an fMRI investigation

Manipulating subcategory salience: exploring the link between skin tone and social perception of Blacks