In the previous paper Ralph Brodd and Martin Winter described the different kinds of batteries and fuel cells. In this paper I will describe lithium batteries in more detail, building an overall foundation for the papers that follow which describe specific components in some depth and usually with an emphasis on the materials behavior. The lithium battery industry is undergoing rapid expansion, now representing the largest segment of the portable battery industry and dominating the computer, cell phone, and camera power source industry. However, the present secondary batteries use expensive components, which are not in sufficient supply to allow the industry to grow at the same rate in the next decade. Moreover, the safety of the system is questionable for the large-scale batteries needed for hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). Another battery need is for a high-power system that can be used for power tools, where only the environmentally hazardous Ni/ Cd battery presently meets the requirements. A battery is a transducer that converts chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. It contains an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, in the case of a lithium battery, is the source of lithium ions. The cathode is the sink for the lithium ions and is chosen to optimize a number of parameters, discussed below. The electrolyte provides for the separation of ionic transport and electronic transport, and in a perfect battery the lithium ion transport number will be unity in the electrolyte. The cell potential is determined by the difference between the chemical potential of the lithium in the anode and cathode, ∆G ) -EF. As noted above, the lithium ions flow through the electrolyte whereas the electrons generated from the reaction, Li ) Li+ + e-, go through the external circuit to do work. Thus, the electrode system must allow for the flow of both lithium ions and electrons. That is, it must be both a good ionic conductor and an electronic conductor. As discussed below, many electrochemically active materials are not good electronic conductors, so it is necessary to add an electronically conductive material such as carbon * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone and fax: (607) 777-4623. E-mail: stanwhit@binghamton.edu. 4271 Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271−4301

http://www.chemie.uni-regensburg.de/Anorganische_Chemie/Vortrag/StudentenWS06-07/Vortrag_Amereller.pdf

Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials

Biological materials: Structure and mechanical properties

A Abbe flap \ăb# e flăp\ [Robert Abbe, New York, N.Y. surgeon, 18511928]: eponym for a lip switch operation. A triangular, full thickness flap from the lower lip used to fill in a deficit in the upper lip. Specifically applied to the midportion of the upper or lower lip— called also lip switch operation Abbe, R. A new plastic operation for the relief of deformity due to double harelip. Med Rec 1898;53:477. ab duct \ăb dŭkt#\ vt (1834): to draw away from the median plane— comp ADDUCT ab er rant \ă-bĕr#ant\ adj (ca. 1798)1: a deviation from the normal or usual course, form, or location 2: straying from the normal way ab frac tion \ăb frăk#shun\ n (1991): the pathologic loss of hard tooth substance caused by biomechanical loading forces. Such loss is thought to be due to flexure and chemical fatigue degradation of enamel and/or dentin at some location distant from the actual point of loading—comp ABLATION, ABRASION, ATTRITION, and EROSION ab la tion \ă-bl a#shun\ n (15c) 1: separation or detachment; extirpation; eradication 2: removal of a part, especially by cutting—see ABFRACTION, EROSION abrade \uh-br ad#\ vt (1677): to rub away the external covering or layer of a part—comp ATTRITION, EROSION abra sion \ă-br a #shun\ n (1656) 1: the wearing away of a substance or structure (such as the skin or the teeth) through some unusual or abnormal mechanical process 2: an abnormal wearing away of the tooth substance by causes other than mastication—comp ATTRITION, EROSION abra sive \uh-br a # siv, -ziv\ n (1853): a substance used for abrading, smoothing, or polishing abra sive \uh-br a # siv, -ziv\ adj (1875) 1: tending to abrade 2: causing irritation—abra sive ly adv, abra sive ness n ab ra si vity \uh-br a#siv-ı̆-t e, -ziv-ı̆-t e\ v (1998): the property of one material to wear away another material by means of frictional contact absorbed dose \ab-sôrbd#,-zôrbd# d os\: the amount of energy from ionizing radiation absorbed per unit mass of matter, expressed in Gray units ab sorp tance \ab-sôrp#tans, -zôrp#tans\ n (ca. 1931): the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by a body to that incident upon it ab sorp tion \ab-sôrp#shun, -zôrp#-\ n (1741) 1: the uptake of substances into or through tissues, e.g., mucosa, skin, and intestine 2: in radiology, the uptake of energy by matter with which the radiation interacts—see A. of RADIATION—comp ADSORPTION absorption of radiation \ab-sôrp#shun ŭv r a#d ea#shun\: collisionlike interactions between the individual particulate or quantum components of a beam of radiation and the subatomic parts of matter that occur at random during irradiation. Each interaction may result in partial or complete transfer of energy abut ment \a-bŭt#ment\ n (1634) 1: that part of a structure that directly receives thrust or pressure; an anchorage2: a tooth, a portion of a tooth, or that portion of a dental implant that serves to support and/or retain a prosthesis—usage see ANGULATED A., HEALING A., DENTAL IMPLANT A., INTERMEDIATE A., ONE PIECE A., PREPARATION PIECE A., STANDARD A., TWO PIECE A. DropB

The glossary of prosthodontic terms.

CRYSTALLINE MATERIALS Introduction Physical Properties Optical Properties Mechanical Properties Thermal Properties Magnetooptic Properties Electrooptic Properties Elastooptic Properties Nonlinear Optical Properties GLASSES Introduction Commercial Optical Glasses Specialty Optical Glasses Fused Silica Fluoride Glasses Chalcogenide Glasses Magnetooptic Properties Electrooptic Properties Elastooptic Properties Nonlinear Optical Properties Special Glasses POLYMERIC MATERIALS Optical Plastics Index of Refraction Nonlinear Optical Properties Thermal Properties Engineering Data METALS Physical Properties of Selected Metals Optical Properties Mechanical Properties Thermal Properties Mirror Substrate Materials LIQUIDS Introduction Water Physical Properties of Selected Liquids Index of Refraction Nonlinear Optical Properties Magnetooptic Properties Commercial Optical Liquids GASES Introduction Physical Properties of Selected Gases Index of Refraction Nonlinear Optical Properties Magnetooptic Properties Atomic Resonance Filters APPENDICES Safe Handling of Optical Materials Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Mineralogical or Common Names for Optical Materials Abbreviations for Methods of Preparing Optical Materials and Thin Films Fundamental Physical Constants Units and Conversion Factors

/pdf/handbook-of-optical-materials-3e2ukwmx2l.pdf

Handbook of Optical Materials

Defining Color. Describing Color. Measuring Color. Measuring Color Quality. Colorants. Producing Colors. Back to Principles. Appendix. Bibliography. Index.

Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology

The Physics and Chemistry of Color

Preface to the Second Edition.Preface to the First Edition. Acknowledgments for the Second Edition. Acknowledgments for the First Edition. LIGHT AND COLOR. Some Fundamentals: Color, Light, and Interactions. COLOR INVOLVING VIBRATIONS AND SIMPLE EXCITATIONS. Color Produced by Incandescence. Color Produced by Gas Excitations. Color Produced by Vibrations and Rotations. COLOR INVOLVING LIGAND FIELD EFFECTS. Color Caused by Transition Metals in a Ligand Field. COLOR INVOLVING MOLECULAR ORBITALS. Color in Organic Molecules. Charge Transfer Color. COLOR INVOLVING BAND THEORY. Color in Metals and Semiconductors. Color Centers. COLOR INVOLVING GEOMETRICAL AND PHYSICAL OPTICS. Dispersive Refraction and Polarization. Scattering and Nonlinear Effects. Interference and Diffraction. COLOR--RELATED TOPICS. Colorants of Many Types. Vision, Luminescence, Lasers, and Related Topics. Appendix A: Units, Chromaticity, and Color Order Systems. Appendix B: Incandescence Equations. Appendix C: Atoms and Simple Molecules. Appendix D: Crystal Fields, Ligand Fields, and Molecular Orbitals. Appendix E: Band Theory. Appendix F: Prism, Thin Film, and Layer Diffraction Grating. Appendix G: Recommendations for Additional Reading. Index.

The Physics and Chemistry of Color: The Fifteen Causes of Color

The optical transmission and indices of refraction for the cubic isomorph of ZrO2 stabilized with 12.0-mol % Y2O3 were measured at various temperatures and for a range of wavelengths from 0.36 to 5.1 μm. Index data to ±5 × 10−5 were fitted to a three-term Sellmeier equation. The value of ND = 2.15847. The dispersion NG − NB = 0.06044, while that for NC − NF = 0.03455. The temperature coefficient of the refractive index between 20 and 130°C varies from 1.6 × 10−5/K for 0.36-μm radiation to 0.62 × 10−5/K for 1.6-μm radiation.

Refractive index of cubic zirconia stabilized with yttria

The characterization of beryl and emerald by visible and infrared absorption spectroscopy

Thirty infrared absorption lines in beryl between 1500 and 11 000 cm−1 are assigned to vibrations of two types of water and to CO2 all in the axial voids of the structure. The spectrum of Type‐I water arises from molecules which are capable of libration and are located between the silicate rings which make up the crystal. The spectrum of Type‐II water arises from molecules in the same sites, but with alkali ions nearby. These molecules are also capable of libration, but at a higher frequency. The Type‐I molecules have their C2 symmetry axes perpendicular to the crystal C6 axis, while the Type‐II molecules have their symmetry axes aligned parallel to the crystal C6 axis. The CO2 molecules are oriented with their long axes prependicular to the crystal C6 axis. Modification of the spectra by heat and hydrothermal treatments was not feasible and the identity of the alkali ions apparently does not influence Type‐II spectrum.

Kurt Nassau

Papers

The Physics and Chemistry of Color

The Physics and Chemistry of Color: The Fifteen Causes of Color

Refractive index of cubic zirconia stabilized with yttria

The characterization of beryl and emerald by visible and infrared absorption spectroscopy

Infrared Spectra of Foreign Molecules in Beryl