Cryptosporidium and Giardia are important causes of diarrhoeal illness. Adequate knowledge of the molecular diversity and geographical distribution of these parasites and the environmental and climatic variables that influence their prevalence is important for effective control of infection in at-risk populations, yet relatively little is known about the epidemiology of these parasites in Africa. Cryptosporidium is associated with moderate to severe diarrhoea and increased mortality in African countries and both parasites negatively affect child growth and development. Malnutrition and HIV status are also important contributors to the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in African countries. Molecular typing of both parasites in humans, domestic animals and wildlife to date indicates a complex picture of both anthroponotic, zoonotic and spill-back transmission cycles that requires further investigation. For Cryptosporidium, the only available drug (nitazoxanide) is ineffective in HIV and malnourished individuals and therefore more effective drugs are a high priority. Several classes of drugs with good efficacy exist for Giardia, but dosing regimens are suboptimal and emerging resistance threatens clinical utility. Climate change and population growth are also predicted to increase both malnutrition and the prevalence of these parasites in water sources. Dedicated and co-ordinated commitments from African governments involving “One Health” initiatives with multidisciplinary teams of veterinarians, medical workers, relevant government authorities, and public health specialists working together are essential to control and prevent the burden of disease caused by these parasites.

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Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Africa: current and future challenges

Common Poisonous Plants of East Africa.

In developed countries such as the United States of America, foodborne illnesses account for 48 million infections per year. Developing countries such as India face greater simultaneous challenges particularly since incorrect processing or storage of dairy products can represent a transmission hazard for a large number of pathogens and can be responsible for outbreaks of brucellosis, listeriosis, tuberculosis, etc. It is important to recognize the types of germs which can be transmitted through insufficient thermal preparation of milk or milk products or through post-pasteurization contamination, in order to successfully avoid transmission of milk-borne infections.

Milk-borne infections. An analysis of their potential effect on the milk industry.

Medicinal plants from the genus Acalypha (Euphorbiaceae)--a review of their ethnopharmacology and phytochemistry.

The use of herbal medicine is increasingly finding more relevance today, especially with the recognition that we are facing more challenges in the treatment of some medical conditions such as diabetes and cancer. To date, there are not many publications or records on the traditional herbal medicine use among the various Kenyan communities despite the widespread use. There is therefore an urgent need to document traditional medicines in Kenya for future reference and research. The main objective of this review is to examine the current state of traditional herbal medicine practise in Kenya, the challenges facing the sector and the possible solutions to streamline the practice and maximize on the benefits. The method adopted in this research involved the analysis of the available records on herbal medicine in Kenya from various sources including internet and the available books. This information was then compared with those in other countries with established systems in order to establish the existing inadequacies. The various efforts to document herbal medicine incorporate into mainstream healthcare and the legal framework was also reviewed. Key words: Herbal medicine, documentation, research

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Current trends of Traditional Herbal Medicine Practice in Kenya: A review

Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in certified food-handlers working in food establishments in the City of Nairobi, Kenya

Background & objectives: Harmful effects of synthetic chemical insecticides including vector resistance, environmental pollution and health hazards have necessitated the current significance in the search for plant-based insecticide products that are environmentally safe and effective to leishmaniases control. The insecticidal activity of Tagetes minuta Linnaeus (Asteraceae), Acalypha fruticosa Forssk (Euphorbiaceae) and Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. (Compositae) extracts were investigated against Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu Lemaire (Diptera: Psychodidae). Methods: The extracts were prepared from dried aerial parts soaked in methanol and ethyl acetate twice until the filtrates became clear, filtered and dried out by rotary evaporation at 30–35 o C. The solid extracts obtained were later prepared into 2.5, 5 and 10 mg/ml. Two millilitres of the solutions were blotted on filter papers, which were dried overnight and placed into jars where adult sandflies were aspirated. Males and females were assayed separately. Results & conclusion: The extracts had significant mortality (p<0.05) in both males and females bioassays but were not significantly different between sexes. The extracts of Acalypha fruticosa and Tagetes minuta had significantly higher mortality rates than those of Tarchonanthus camphoratus and the different concentrations used showed significantly different mortality rates and 10 mg/ml was the most effective concentration. Cent percent mortality was obtained at 96 h of exposure to 5 and 10 mg/ml concentrations except for Tarchonanthus camphoratus which had a mortality of only 46.7% in 10 mg/ml bioassay. These extracts were found to be insecticidal to adult sandflies.

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The potential of the extracts of Tagetes minuta Linnaeus (Asteraceae), Acalypha fruticosa Forssk (Euphorbiaceae) and Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. (Compositae) against Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu Lemaire (Diptera: Psychodidae), the vector for Leishmania major Yakimoff and Schokhor.

Introduction The medical importance of mosquitoes as vectors for the transmission of serious diseases that cause morbidity, mortality, economic loss, and social disruption such as malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and viral diseases is well recorded (Becker et al, 2003). Aedes aegypti, the main carrier for viruses that cause dengue and dengue hemorrhagic and yellow fevers, is found majorly in the tropics and subtropics. There is no effective vaccine against dengue, and thus the only way of significantly lowering the incidence of this disease is through mosquito control (Malavige et al, 2004). Chemical measures were first tried, but they failed since their overuse led to disruption of natural biological control systems and outbreak of new insect species. In addition, use of insecticides led to the development of mosquito resistance, environmental pollution, and undesirable effect on non-target organisms (Brown, 1986). In a bid to resolve these problems, interest in insecticides of natural origin, specifically plant-derived products has recently received close attention. Several studies have emphasized the importance of research and development of herbal substances for controlling mosquitoes (Shaala et al, 2005). Their results may vary, but natural plant products may be a possible alternative to synthetic substances, as they are effective and compatible with human and animal life and the environment (Chaithong et al, 2006). The genus Mundulea consists of about 15 species, widespread throughout Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, India, Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea. Only a single species, Mundulea sericea, is found in Southern Africa. This species occurs in South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Angola, north to tropical Africa, and east to Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea (Watt and Breyer-Brandwick, 1962). Mundulea sericea is one of the commonest fish poisons where both bark and seeds are used (Neuwinger, 2004). In addition, the Chinese used M. sericea to control tobacco budworm Heliothis virescens (Lepidopteriae: Noctuidae) (Yoshida and Toscano, 1994). The toxic principal of the plant is rotenone, an isoflavonoid (Vedcourt and Trump, 1969). The rotenoids deguelin and tephrosin are the potent active principles which have been isolated from extracts of M. sericea (Luyengi et al, 1994). Deguelin is a natural plantderived rotenoid, most commonly used as an insecticide in Africa and South America (Udeani et al, 1997). Rotenoids from the bark of M. sericea have been commercially used as insecticide. These chemical compounds in the bark, leaves and seed are the active compounds responsible for the fish poison. It is reported that the strength varies geographically (Watt and Breyer-Brandwick, 1962). The current study involved extraction and evaluation of root bark and seedpod of M. sericea for larvicidal activities on Aedes aegypt.

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Larvicidal effect of Mundulea sericea (Leguminosaea) plant extract against Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae)

Background: Due to challenges of controlling leishmaniasis in Kenya through the vector, the efficacy of pyrethrin EC (Pymos 0.6% W/V) a mosquito adulticide was evaluated against Phlebotomus duboscqi while incorporated in sucrose as a possible complementary method. Methods: Pyrethrin was prepared into concentrations of 0.08, 0.25and 0.5 mg/ml using 10% sucrose. Ten male and female sand flies were each aspirated into jars and fed separately with the prepared solutions using cotton wool pads placed atop experimental jars and mortality monitored each day. The experiments were replicated three times. Results: Significant mortality (P< 0.05) for both sexes was observed. The concentration of 0.08mg/ml gave low adult mortality in 24 hours but amplified with time. In the 0.25 bioassay, mortality of females were 10 (33.3%) and males had 21 (70%) in 24 hours. The LD50 for females and males tied at 0.1 mg/ml in 48 hours of exposure. The concentration of 0.25 mg/ml was ideal at 48 hours of feeding where majority of the sand flies succumbed to the insecticide. There were significant mortality differences (P <0.05) between the concentrations but no significant difference (P>0.05) was observed in male and female mortality at 48 hours of exposure however. Although we cannot rule out sand fly mortality due to contact with the test material, the results of this study however suggest that control strategies using low-dose pyrethrin-sugar combinations as baits may be effective against phlebotomine sand flies and other sugar feeding pests of medical importance.

https://www.webmedcentral.com/wmcpdf/Article_WMC001086.pdf

Potential Effects Of Pyrethrin Incorporated In Sucrose Baits Against Phlebotomus Duboscqi Neveu Lemaire (diptera: Psychodidae) In Leishmaniasis Control Strategies

Laban N. Ireri

Papers

Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections in certified food-handlers working in food establishments in the City of Nairobi, Kenya

The potential of the extracts of Tagetes minuta Linnaeus (Asteraceae), Acalypha fruticosa Forssk (Euphorbiaceae) and Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. (Compositae) against Phlebotomus duboscqi Neveu Lemaire (Diptera: Psychodidae), the vector for Leishmania major Yakimoff and Schokhor.

Larvicidal effect of Mundulea sericea (Leguminosaea) plant extract against Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae)

Potential Effects Of Pyrethrin Incorporated In Sucrose Baits Against Phlebotomus Duboscqi Neveu Lemaire (diptera: Psychodidae) In Leishmaniasis Control Strategies