Common Poisonous Plants of East Africa.

The use of herbal medicine is increasingly finding more relevance today, especially with the recognition that we are facing more challenges in the treatment of some medical conditions such as diabetes and cancer. To date, there are not many publications or records on the traditional herbal medicine use among the various Kenyan communities despite the widespread use. There is therefore an urgent need to document traditional medicines in Kenya for future reference and research. The main objective of this review is to examine the current state of traditional herbal medicine practise in Kenya, the challenges facing the sector and the possible solutions to streamline the practice and maximize on the benefits. The method adopted in this research involved the analysis of the available records on herbal medicine in Kenya from various sources including internet and the available books. This information was then compared with those in other countries with established systems in order to establish the existing inadequacies. The various efforts to document herbal medicine incorporate into mainstream healthcare and the legal framework was also reviewed. Key words: Herbal medicine, documentation, research

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Current trends of Traditional Herbal Medicine Practice in Kenya: A review

Leishmaniasis is a pestilent affliction that importunately needs better therapeutics necessitated by absence of effective vaccine, emergence as HIV co-infection and the dread of debilitating chemotherapy. The Leishmania parasites incapacitate host macrophages by preventing the formation of phagolysosomes, impeding antigen presentation to T cells, leading to suppression of cell-mediated immunity. An ideal approach to cure leishmaniasis includes administration of antileishmanial compounds that can concomitantly establish an effective Th1 response via restoration of requisite signaling between macrophages and T cells, for subsequent activation of macrophages to eliminate intracellular amastigotes. Plants have provided an opulent treasure of biomolecules that have fuelled the discovery of antileishmanial drugs. Modulation of immune functions using medicinal plants and their products has emerged as an effective therapeutic strategy. Herein, we review the plant extracts and natural products that have resulted in therapeutic polarization of host immunity to cure leishmaniasis. These immunostimulatory phytochemicals as source of potential antileishmanials may provide new strategies to combat leishmaniasis, alone or as adjunct modality.

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Exploring the role of medicinal plant-based immunomodulators for effective therapy of leishmaniasis.

Context: Warburgia (Canellaceae) species have a long history of ethnomedicinal uses in east, central and southern Africa. Due to the popularity of Warburgia as a source of ethnomedicines; all the species are severely over-harvested throughout their distributional ranges.Objective: This review documents fragmented information on traditional uses and pharmacological evidence of the genus Warburgia.Methods: Information on Warburgia species was collected from scientific journals, books, theses and reports via library and electronic search using Medline, Pubmed, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Web of Science.Results: Ethnomedicinal uses of Warburgia species have been recorded from east, central and southern Africa for 30 human and 7 animal ailments. Warburgia species are used to treat gastro-intestinal disorders, cold, cough and sore throat; fever or malaria, respiratory and odontological ailments. Warburgia species are rich in drimane and colorotane sesquiterpenoides, and other compounds. The extrac...

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3109/13880209.2013.837935

The genus Warburgia: A review of its traditional uses and pharmacology

Objective:Traditional medicinal plants have long been used to treat various ailments in Keiyo district. However to date there are no records on medicinal plants used by the Keiyo despite threats of rapid disappearance of indigenous knowledge from deforestation, overexploitation among other factors. The purpose of the study was to document medicinal plants used by the Keiyo community in order to preserve traditional medical knowledge for future research and potential development of new drugs. Methods:The research team comprised of professionals from the fields of medicine and botany. Local leaders, community elders, church leaders and other stakeholders were used to identify herbalists and convince them to provide information. Semi structured interviews, group discussions and observations were used to collect information on traditional knowledge from herbalists. Details of the medical conditions treated, herbal preparations used, treatment methods, local plant names and methods of collection of herbs were recorded. 
Results:A total of 73 medicinal plant species belonging to 33 families were identified, used to treat 46 common human and three veterinary diseases. Leucas calostachys was the most widely used (17 medicinal uses) followed by Vachelia xanthophloea (10), Carissa edulis (9), Trimeria grandifolia (8), Terminalia brownii (7) and Rhamnus prinoides (6). Heartburn was treated using the largest number of plants (17) followed by cancer (9). Eight plants were used to either treat infertility in women or arthritis, whereas peptic ulcers, hypertension, headache, chest congestion and colic pains were each treated using seven plants. 
Conclusions:The study provides information on medicinal and healing methods used by the Keiyo community. It also revealed that traditional medicines are still widely used in Keiyo district. Some of the identified plants have been demonstrated to possess pharmacological activities related to those mentioned by the herbalists.

Ethnomedicinal Plants Traditionally Used by the Keiyo Community in Elgeyo Marakwet County, Kenya

Plant extracts from Warburgia ugandensis Sprague (Family: Canellaceae), Psiadia punctulata Vatke (Family: Compositae) and Chasmanthera dependens Hoschst (Family: Menispermaceae) were tested for activity on Leishmania major promastigotes (Strain IDU/KE/83 = NLB-144) and infected macrophages in vitro. Plants were collected from Baringo district, dried, extracted, weighed and tested for antileishmanial activity. Serial dilutions of the crude extracts were assayed for their activity against Leishmania major in cell free cultures and in infected macrophages in vitro. Inhibitory concentrations and levels of cytotoxicity were determined. Warburgia ugandensis, Psiadia punctulata and Chasmanthera dependens had an IC50 of 1.114 mg/ml, 2.216 mg/ml and 4.648 mg/ml, respectively. The cytotoxicity of the drugs on BALB/c peritoneal macrophage cells was insignificant as compared to the highly toxic drug of choice Pentostam®. The supernatants from control and Leishmania infected macrophages were analyzed for their nitrite contents by Griess reaction and nitrite absorbance measured at 540 nm. Warburgia ugandensis (stem bark water extract), Chasmanthera dependens (stem bark water extract) and Psiadia punctulata (stem bark methanol extract) produced 112.3%, 94% and 88.5% more nitric oxide than the untreated infected macrophages respectively. Plant crude extracts had significant (p<0.05) anti-leishmanial and immunomodulative effects but insignificant cytotoxic effects at 1mg/ml concentration. All experiments were performed in triplicate. Statistical analysis of the differences between mean values obtained from the experimental group compared to the controls was done by students't test. ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the various treatment groups. The analysis program Probit was used to determine IC50s.

https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajtcam/article/download/54791/43280

In Vitro Effects of Warburgia Ugandensis, Psiadia Punctulata and Chasmanthera Dependens on Leishmania Major Promastigotes

Introduction The medical importance of mosquitoes as vectors for the transmission of serious diseases that cause morbidity, mortality, economic loss, and social disruption such as malaria, lymphatic filariasis, and viral diseases is well recorded (Becker et al, 2003). Aedes aegypti, the main carrier for viruses that cause dengue and dengue hemorrhagic and yellow fevers, is found majorly in the tropics and subtropics. There is no effective vaccine against dengue, and thus the only way of significantly lowering the incidence of this disease is through mosquito control (Malavige et al, 2004). Chemical measures were first tried, but they failed since their overuse led to disruption of natural biological control systems and outbreak of new insect species. In addition, use of insecticides led to the development of mosquito resistance, environmental pollution, and undesirable effect on non-target organisms (Brown, 1986). In a bid to resolve these problems, interest in insecticides of natural origin, specifically plant-derived products has recently received close attention. Several studies have emphasized the importance of research and development of herbal substances for controlling mosquitoes (Shaala et al, 2005). Their results may vary, but natural plant products may be a possible alternative to synthetic substances, as they are effective and compatible with human and animal life and the environment (Chaithong et al, 2006). The genus Mundulea consists of about 15 species, widespread throughout Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, India, Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea. Only a single species, Mundulea sericea, is found in Southern Africa. This species occurs in South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Angola, north to tropical Africa, and east to Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka and Papua New Guinea (Watt and Breyer-Brandwick, 1962). Mundulea sericea is one of the commonest fish poisons where both bark and seeds are used (Neuwinger, 2004). In addition, the Chinese used M. sericea to control tobacco budworm Heliothis virescens (Lepidopteriae: Noctuidae) (Yoshida and Toscano, 1994). The toxic principal of the plant is rotenone, an isoflavonoid (Vedcourt and Trump, 1969). The rotenoids deguelin and tephrosin are the potent active principles which have been isolated from extracts of M. sericea (Luyengi et al, 1994). Deguelin is a natural plantderived rotenoid, most commonly used as an insecticide in Africa and South America (Udeani et al, 1997). Rotenoids from the bark of M. sericea have been commercially used as insecticide. These chemical compounds in the bark, leaves and seed are the active compounds responsible for the fish poison. It is reported that the strength varies geographically (Watt and Breyer-Brandwick, 1962). The current study involved extraction and evaluation of root bark and seedpod of M. sericea for larvicidal activities on Aedes aegypt.

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Caroline W. Wainaina

Papers

In Vitro Effects of Warburgia Ugandensis, Psiadia Punctulata and Chasmanthera Dependens on Leishmania Major Promastigotes

Larvicidal effect of Mundulea sericea (Leguminosaea) plant extract against Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae)