Glutathione (GSH) plays an important role in a multitude of cellular processes, including cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis, and as a result, disturbances in GSH homeostasis are implicated in the etiology and/or progression of a number of human diseases, including cancer, diseases of aging, cystic fibrosis, and cardiovascular, inflammatory, immune, metabolic, and neurodegenerative diseases. Owing to the pleiotropic effects of GSH on cell functions, it has been quite difficult to define the role of GSH in the onset and/or the expression of human diseases, although significant progress is being made. GSH levels, turnover rates, and/or oxidation state can be compromised by inherited or acquired defects in the enzymes, transporters, signaling molecules, or transcription factors that are involved in its homeostasis, or from exposure to reactive chemicals or metabolic intermediates. GSH deficiency or a decrease in the GSH/glutathione disulfide ratio manifests itself largely through an increased susceptibility to oxidative stress, and the resulting damage is thought to be involved in diseases, such as cancer, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In addition, imbalances in GSH levels affect immune system function, and are thought to play a role in the aging process. Just as low intracellular GSH levels decrease cellular antioxidant capacity, elevated GSH levels generally increase antioxidant capacity and resistance to oxidative stress, and this is observed in many cancer cells. The higher GSH levels in some tumor cells are also typically associated with higher levels of GSH-related enzymes and transporters. Although neither the mechanism nor the implications of these changes are well defined, the high GSH content makes cancer cells chemoresistant, which is a major factor that limits drug treatment. The present report highlights and integrates the growing connections between imbalances in GSH homeostasis and a multitude of human diseases.

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Glutathione dysregulation and the etiology and progression of human diseases.

Emotional arousal enhances perception and memory of high-priority information but impairs processing of other information. Here, we propose that, under arousal, local glutamate levels signal the current strength of a representation and interact with norepinephrine (NE) to enhance high priority representations and out-compete or suppress lower priority representations. In our "glutamate amplifies noradrenergic effects" (GANE) model, high glutamate at the site of prioritized representations increases local NE release from the locus coeruleus (LC) to generate "NE hotspots." At these NE hotspots, local glutamate and NE release are mutually enhancing and amplify activation of prioritized representations. In contrast, arousal-induced LC activity inhibits less active representations via two mechanisms: 1) Where there are hotspots, lateral inhibition is amplified; 2) Where no hotspots emerge, NE levels are only high enough to activate low-threshold inhibitory adrenoreceptors. Thus, LC activation promotes a few hotspots of excitation in the context of widespread suppression, enhancing high priority representations while suppressing the rest. Hotspots also help synchronize oscillations across neural ensembles transmitting high-priority information. Furthermore, brain structures that detect stimulus priority interact with phasic NE release to preferentially route such information through large-scale functional brain networks. A surge of NE before, during, or after encoding enhances synaptic plasticity at NE hotspots, triggering local protein synthesis processes that enhance selective memory consolidation. Together, these noradrenergic mechanisms promote selective attention and memory under arousal. GANE not only reconciles apparently contradictory findings in the emotion-cognition literature but also extends previous influential theories of LC neuromodulation by proposing specific mechanisms for how LC-NE activity increases neural gain.

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Norepinephrine ignites local hotspots of neuronal excitation: How arousal amplifies selectivity in perception and memory.

Recent evidence suggests that ethanol abuse produces its diverse effects on the brain to a substantial degree by disrupting the function of the major excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate. Ethanol, at concentrations associated with behavioral effects in humans, inhibits the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, which mediates the post-synaptic excitatory effects of glutamate. Tolerance to ethanol results in up-regulation of the NMDA receptor so that abrupt withdrawal produces a hyperexcitable state that leads to seizures, delerium tremens, and excitotoxic neuronal death. Ethanol's inhibition of the NMDA receptor in the fetal brain likely contributes to the CNS manifestations of fetal alcohol syndrome. Therapeutic strategies aimed at correcting glutamatergic dysregulation in alcoholism need to be explored.

The Role of Glutamatergic Neurotransmission in the Pathophysiology of Alcoholism

https://ponderapharma.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/The-promise-of-N-acetylcysteine-in-neuropsychiatry.pdf

The promise of N-acetylcysteine in neuropsychiatry.

Hippocampus plays a crucial role in important brain functions (e.g. memory, learning) thus in the past two decades this brain region became a major objective of neuroscience research. During this period large number of anatomical, neurochemical and electrophysiological data have been accumulated. While excellent reviews have been published on the anatomy and electrophysiology of hippocampal formation, the neurochemistry of this area has not been thoroughly surveyed. Therefore the aim of this review is to summarize the neurochemical and pharmacological data on the release of the major neurotransmitters found in the hippocampal region: glutamate (GLU), gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine (ACh), noradrenaline (NA) and serotonin (5-HT). In addition, this review analyzes the synaptic and nonsynaptic interactions between hippocampal neuronal elements and overviews how auto- and heteroreceptors are involved in the presynaptic modulation of transmitter release. The presented data clearly show that transmitters released from axon terminals without synaptic contact play an important role in the fine tuning of communication between neurons within a neuronal circuit.

Neurochemistry and pharmacology of the major hippocampal transmitter systems: synaptic and nonsynaptic interactions

N-methyl-D-aspartate mediated responses decrease with age in Fischer 344 rat brain

The effects of GSH (gamma-glutamylcysteinylglycine) and GSSG on intracellular calcium levels ([Ca2+]i) were investigated using fura-2-loaded dissociated brain cells from newborn rat pups. Both produced concentration-dependent increases in [Ca2+]i (EC50 values of 914.3 +/- 190.5 and 583.0 +/- 97.2 microM for GSH and GSSG, respectively), similar to that observed with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and other agonists at the NMDA receptor. Maximum response (expressed as percentage change in [Ca2+]i relative to basal) was significantly greater for GSSG (37.5 +/- 1.6%) than for GSH (25.3 +/- 1.6%). The response to both agents was prevented or reversed by competitive (100 microM) (-)-2-amino-5- phosphonovalerate and noncompetitive (400 nM) MK-801 or 1.0 mM Mg2+ antagonists of NMDA receptor-mediated calcium entry, even at concentrations of GSH and GSSG normally producing maximal response. The idea that these effects are mediated, at least in part, by interaction with the NMDA receptor was supported by the effects of GSH and GSSG on the binding of the NMDA receptor ligand [3H]CGP-39653 to membranes isolated from hippocampal and cortical homogenates. Both GSH and GSSG displaced bound [3H]CGP-39653, with IC50 values of 0.93 +/- 0.18 and 11.02 +/- 1.22 microM, respectively, and produced an increase in the apparent Kd of binding (control, 8.92 +/- 0.83 nM, and GSH, 13.31 +/- 1.19 nM; control, 11.59 +/- 0.35 nM, and GSSG, 18.73 +/- 0.66 nM). However, both also produced modest reductions in Bmax (control, 1265 +/- 69 fmol/mg of protein, and GSH, 901 +/- 73 fmol/mg of protein; control, 1068 +/- 30 fmol/mg of protein, and GSSG, 730 +/- 18 fmol/mg of protein) and Hill slopes (GSH, 0.66 +/- 0.02; GSSG, 0.62 +/- 0.04). This suggests complex kinetics for the interaction of GSH and GSSG with the NMDA receptor. Taken together, the results suggest the potential for modulation of the NMDA receptor complex by GSH and GSSG.

Laurie M. Brown

Papers

N-methyl-D-aspartate mediated responses decrease with age in Fischer 344 rat brain

Stimulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated calcium entry into dissociated neurons by reduced and oxidized glutathione

Ethanol and neuronal calcium channels

The effects of chronic ethanol exposure on N-methyl-D-aspartate-stimulated overflow of [3H]catecholamines from rat brain.

Brain regional differences in glycine reversal of ethanol-induced inhibition of n-methyl-d-aspartate-stimulated neurotransmttter release