Numerous theories in social and health psychology assume that intentions cause behaviors. However, most tests of the intention- behavior relation involve correlational studies that preclude causal inferences. In order to determine whether changes in behavioral intention engender behavior change, participants should be assigned randomly to a treatment that significantly increases the strength of respective intentions relative to a control condition, and differences in subsequent behavior should be compared. The present research obtained 47 experimental tests of intention-behavior relations that satisfied these criteria. Meta-analysis showed that a medium-to-large change in intention (d = 0.66) leads to a small-to-medium change in behavior (d = 0.36). The review also identified several conceptual factors, methodological features, and intervention characteristics that moderate intention-behavior consistency.

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Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence.

This meta-analysis explored the efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) dependent on behaviour and methodological moderators. A lack of hierarchical analysis in previous reviews risks confounding these moderators. Here moderating roles of behaviour type, length of follow-up, sample age and behavioural measure are explored hierarchically amongst prospective tests of the TPB, controlling for past behaviour where possible. Searching identified 237 prospective tests from 206 articles. Random-effects meta-analytic procedures were used to correcting correlations for sampling and measurement error. Behaviour type moderated the model; physical activity and diet behaviours were better predicted (23.9% and 21.2% variance explained, respectively) whilst risk, detection, safer sex and abstinence from drugs were poorly predicted (between 13.8 and 15.3% variance explained). Methodological moderators were also apparent: age of sample moderated relations with student samples better predicted for physical activi...

Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the Theory of Planned Behaviour: a meta-analysis

Research focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport is abundant. However, the existing qualitative syntheses of this research lack the quantitative detail necessary to determine the magnitude of differences between groups of varying levels of skills, thereby limiting the theoretical and practical contribution of this body of literature. We present a meta-analytic review focusing on perceptual-cognitive skill in sport (N = 42 studies, 388 effect sizes) with the primary aim of quantifying expertise differences. Effects were calculated for a variety of dependent measures (i.e., response accuracy, response time, number of visual fixations, visual fixation duration, and quiet eye period) using point-biserial correlation. Results indicated that experts are better than nonexperts in picking up perceptual cues, as revealed by measures of response accuracy and response time. Systematic differences in visual search behaviors were also observed, with experts using fewer fixations of longer duration, including prolonged quiet eye periods, compared with non-experts. Several factors (e.g., sport type, research paradigm employed, and stimulus presentation modality) significantly moderated the relationship between level of expertise and perceptual-cognitive skill. Practical and theoretical implications are presented and suggestions for empirical work are provided.

http://www.castonline.ilstu.edu/smith/405/readings_pdf/expert_rdngs/perc_exp_meta_anal.pdf

Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: a meta-analysis.

Background The World Health Organization estimates that 19 million deaths worldwide are attributable to physical inactivity Chronic diseases associated with physical inactivity include cancer, diabetes and coronary heart disease Objectives The purpose of this systematic review is to summarize the evidence of the effectiveness of school-based interventions in promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents Search strategy The search strategy included searching several databases In addition, reference lists of included articles and background papers were reviewed for potentially relevant studies, as well as references from relevant Cochrane reviews Primary authors of included studies were contacted as needed for additional information Selection criteria To be included, the intervention had to be relevant to public health practice, implemented, facilitated, or promoted by staff in local public health units, implemented in a school setting and aimed at increasing physical activity, report on outcomes for children and adolescents (aged 6 to 18 years), and use a prospective design with a control group Data collection and analysis Standardized tools were used by two independent reviewers to rate each studyﾒs methodological quality and for data extraction Where discrepancies existed discussion occurred until consensus was reached The results were summarized narratively due to wide variations in the populations, interventions evaluated and outcomes measured Main results 13,841 titles were identified and screened and 482 articles were retrieved Multiple publications on the same project were combined and counted as one project, resulting in 395 distinct project accounts (studies) Of the 395 studies 104 were deemed relevant and of those, four were assessed as having strong methodological quality, 22 were of moderate quality and 78 were considered weak In total 26 studies were included in the review There is good evidence that school-based physical activity interventions have a positive impact on four of the nine outcome measures Specifically positive effects were observed for duration of physical activity, television viewing, VO2 max, and blood cholesterol Generally school-based interventions had no effect on leisure time physical activity rates, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, body mass index, and pulse rate At a minimum, a combination of printed educational materials and changes to the school curriculum that promote physical activity result in positive effects Authors' conclusions Given that there are no harmful effects and that there is some evidence of positive effects on lifestyle behaviours and physical health status measures, ongoing physical activity promotion in schools is recommended at this time

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School-based physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6-18.

Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge

This study investigated skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search strategy within open-play situations in soccer. Experienced (n = 15) and inexperienced (n = 15) subjects were required to anticipate pass destination from filmed soccer sequences viewed on a large 3-m x 3-m video projection screen. MANCOVA showed that experienced soccer players demonstrated superior anticipatory performance. Univariate analyses revealed between-group differences in speed of response but not in response accuracy. Also, inexperienced players fixated more frequently on the ball and the player passing the ball, whereas experienced players fixated on peripheral aspects of the display, such as the positions and movements of other players. The experienced group fixated on significantly more locations than their inexperienced counterparts. Further differences were noted in search rate, with experienced players exhibiting more fixations of shorter duration. The experienced group's higher search rate contradicted previous research. However, this resulted from using 11 on 11 film sequences, which were never previously used in visual search research. The increased frequency of eye fixations was regarded as being more advantageous for anticipating pass destination during open play in soccer. Finally, a number of practical implications were highlighted.

Visual Search Strategies in Experienced and Inexperienced Soccer Players

Effects of a 6-week aerobic dance intervention on body image and physical self-perceptions in adolescent girls.

This study tested the proposition that experienced soccer players exhibit greater task-specific cognitive knowledge than novice players. 12 experienced and 12 inexperienced subjects viewed structured and unstructured soccer action sequences on a 3.65-m2 video projection screen. In recalling specific player positions following brief 10-sec. film clips, inexperienced players had larger recall of errors than the experienced players on structured trials only. This indicated that experienced players' cognitive knowledge permitted more meaningful associations between players' positions resulting in more efficient retrieval. When recognition of previously viewed film clips was examined, experienced subjects were more accurate in recognising structured trials only. Experienced soccer players seem to have a more complex and discriminating organisation of long-term memory which facilitates the encoding of task-specific information.

Cognitive knowledge and soccer performance

In this review, we explore the role of motor control and biomechanics in developing an understanding of soccer skills using kicking as the main vehicle. The links between these sub-disciplines of sport science have not been well established in the past because of an emphasis on cognitive processes in traditional accounts of motor behaviour. We argue that a dynamical systems interpretation of the processes of coordination and control in movements with multiple degrees of freedom signals a new era in the relationship between the sub-disciplines of motor control and biomechanics. Although research on coordination and control of soccer skills is currently sparse, there are indications that the relationship between motor control and biomechanics could form a significant component of scientific programmes in talent identification and skill development. Further interdisciplinary work is needed to enhance understanding of coordination and control of soccer skills.

Les Burwitz

Papers

Visual Search Strategies in Experienced and Inexperienced Soccer Players

Effects of a 6-week aerobic dance intervention on body image and physical self-perceptions in adolescent girls.

Cognitive knowledge and soccer performance

Understanding and measuring coordination and control in kicking skills in soccer: implications for talent identification and skill acquisition

Perception and action in sport