Natural extracellular matrices (ECMs) are viscoelastic and exhibit stress relaxation. However, hydrogels used as synthetic ECMs for three-dimensional (3D) culture are typically elastic. Here, we report a materials approach to tune the rate of stress relaxation of hydrogels for 3D culture, independently of the hydrogel's initial elastic modulus, degradation, and cell-adhesion-ligand density. We find that cell spreading, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are all enhanced in cells cultured in gels with faster relaxation. Strikingly, MSCs form a mineralized, collagen-1-rich matrix similar to bone in rapidly relaxing hydrogels with an initial elastic modulus of 17 kPa. We also show that the effects of stress relaxation are mediated by adhesion-ligand binding, actomyosin contractility and mechanical clustering of adhesion ligands. Our findings highlight stress relaxation as a key characteristic of cell-ECM interactions and as an important design parameter of biomaterials for cell culture.

https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8692536/file/8692544.pdf

Hydrogels with tunable stress relaxation regulate stem cell fate and activity

St em cells sense and respond to the mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix. However, both the extent to which extracellular-matrix mechanics affect stem-cell fate in three-dimensional microenvironments and the underlying biophysical mechanisms are unclear. We demonstrate that the commitment of mesenchymal stem-cell populations changes in response to the rigidity of three-dimensional microenvironments, with osteogenesis occurring predominantly at 11‐30 kPa. In contrast to previous two-dimensional work, however, cell fate was not correlated with morphology. Instead, matrix stiffness regulated integrin binding as well as reorganization of adhesion ligands on the nanoscale, both of which were traction dependent and correlated with osteogenic commitment of mesenchymal stem-cell populations. These findings suggest that cells interpret changes in the physical properties of adhesion substrates as changes in adhesion-ligand presentation, and that cells themselves can be harnessed as tools to mechanically process materials into structures that feed back to manipulate their fate.

/pdf/harnessing-traction-mediated-manipulation-of-the-cell-matrix-59kzz8pgog.pdf

Harnessing traction-mediated manipulation of the cell/matrix interface to control stem-cell fate

Fracture-healing is a specialized type of woundhealing response in which the regeneration of bone leads to a restoration of skeletal integrity. While the process of fracture-healing is usually considered to be biologically optimum. the healing of 5 to 10 pen cent of the estimated 5.6 million fractures occurring annually in the United States is delayed or impaired”. The cause of the impaired healing is often unknown. However, problems with operative and non-operative interventions. such as inadequate mobilization of the fracture, distraction of fracture fragments by fixation devices or traction, repeated manipulations or excessive early motion of a fracture, or excessive peniosteal stripping and damage to other soft tissues during operative exposure, intenfene with healing and may cause a delayed union or a non-union. A delayed union on a non-union may also occur if a fracture becomes contaminated at the time of the injury or after an operation or if an acceptable apposition of the fracture fragments on stable fixation is not achieved25. Moreover. specific pants of the skeleton, such as the neck of the talus. the neck of the femur, and the campal scaphoid5, are known to be at increased risk for impaired fracture-healing. and there may be problems related to peculiarities of the local blood supply or difficulties with the control of the mechanical strain environment at these sites. Thus. while most fractures heal without problems. there are several conditions unden which enhancement of the repair process would be of great benefit to ensure the rapid restoration of skeletal function. The ability of injured patients to return to the work force or to recreational activities early would not only have a substantial economic impact on society but would also improve the oven-all physical and mental well-being of the patients. In this article, I will review some of the better descnibed and more extensively tested methods that have been used to stimulate fracture-healing. I will also provide an introduction to certain new technologies that could improve the repair of fractures. The article is organized in two sections. The first section is a discussion

Enhancement of fracture-healing.

At postconfluence, cultured bovine pericytes isolated from retinal capillaries form three-dimensional nodule-like structures that mineralize. Using a combination of Northern and Southern blotting, in situ hybridization, and immunofluorescence we have demonstrated that this process is associated with the stage-specific expression of markers of primitive clonogenic marrow stromal cells (STRO-1) and markers of cells of the osteoblast lineage (bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, osteonectin, and osteopontin). To demonstrate that the formation of nodules and the expression of these proteins were indicative of true osteogenic potential, vascular pericytes were also inoculated into diffusion chambers and implanted into athymic mice. When recovered from the host, chambers containing pericytes were found reproducibly to contain a tissue comprised of cartilage and bone, as well as soft fibrous connective tissue and cells resembling adipocytes. This is the first study to provide direct evidence of the osteogenic potential of microvascular pericytes in vivo. Our results are also consistent with the possibility that the pericyte population in situ serves as a reservoir of primitive precursor cells capable of giving rise to cells of multiple lineages including osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, and fibroblasts.

Vascular pericytes express osteogenic potential in vitro and in vivo.

Cells of the bone marrow stroma can reversibly convert among different phenotypes. Based on this and on evidence for a reciprocal relationship between osteoblastogenesis and adipogenesis, we have isolated several murine bone marrow-derived clonal cell lines with phenotypic characteristics of osteoblasts or adipocytes, or both. Consistent with a state of plasticity, cell lines with a mixed phenotype synthesized osteoblast markers like type I collagen, alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, as well as the adipocyte marker lipoprotein lipase, under basal conditions. In the presence of ascorbic acid and beta-glycerophosphate-agents that promote osteoblast differentiation-they formed a mineralized matrix. In the presence of isobutylmethylxanthine, hydrocortisone, and indomethacin-agents that promote adipocyte differentiation-they accumulated fat droplets, but failed to express adipsin and aP2, markers of terminally differentiated adipocytes. Furthermore, they were converted back to matrix mineralizing cells when the adipogenic stimuli were replaced with the osteoblastogenic ones. A prototypic cell line with mixed phenotype (UAMS-33) expressed Osf2/Cbfa1-a transcription factor required for osteoblast differentiation, but not PPARgamma2-a transcription factor required for terminal adipocyte differentiation. Stable transfection with a PPARgamma2 expression construct and activation with the thiazolidinedione BRL49653 stimulated aP2 and adipsin synthesis and fat accumulation, and simultaneously suppressed Osf2/Cbfa1, alpha1(I) procollagen, and osteocalcin synthesis. Moreover, it rendered the cells incapable of forming a mineralized matrix. These results strongly suggest that PPARgamma2 negatively regulates stromal cell plasticity by suppressing Osf2/Cbfa1 and osteoblast-like biosynthetic activity, while promoting terminal differentiation to adipocytes.

Inhibition of Osf2/Cbfa1 expression and terminal osteoblast differentiation by PPARgamma2.

Two cloned cell lines were isolated from cultures of mouse bone-marrow cells. One of the lines, D1, exhibited osteogenic properties and synthesized type-I collagen (alpha 1)2 alpha 2. The second cell line, D2, was not osteogenic and produced a collagen homotrimer (alpha 1)3. Whereas the extracellular matrix of the D1 cell cultures contained striated collagen fibrils, presumably composed of type-I collagen, the homotrimer-producing D2 cells did not demonstrate striated collagen fibrils. Instead, they had thin filaments without detectable striations. Sodium ascorbate stimulated collagen synthesis at the transcriptional level in both the D1 and the D2 cells. The bone-producing characteristics of D1 in vitro included high levels of alkaline phosphatase, increased cyclic adenosine monophosphate on treatment with parathyroid hormone, and expression of osteocalcin mRNA. The D1 cells, unlike the D2 cells, produced a mineralized matrix in vitro. Mineralization in the cultures of the D1 cells occurred in nodules of increased cell density, which also contained the cells with the highest concentrations of collagen mRNA, as shown by in situ hybridization. When the D1 cells were implanted in a diffusion chamber in vivo, a mixture of both osteogenic and adipogenic tissues was formed. This indicates that the D1 cell line is derived from an early marrow stromal precursor that is multipotential.

Two cell lines from bone marrow that differ in terms of collagen synthesis, osteogenic characteristics, and matrix mineralization.

Matrix mineralization in hypertrophic chondrocyte cultures. Beta glycerophosphate increases type X collagen messenger RNA and the specific activity of pp60c-src kinase.

In previous studies, we described a layer of tissue that formed around methylmethacrylate cement that had been implanted into the posterior cervical spine of dogs. We are now reporting on a rat model in which we induced, in the interface between the bone of the posterior elements of the dorsal spine and methylmethacrylate, the formation of a layer of tissue that was morphologically similar to the tissue that had been produced in the dogs. As in the dogs, we noted macrophages and giant cells and we demonstrated that the interface tissue synthesized several basement-membrane components (type-IV collagen, laminin, and fibronectin). In addition, we demonstrated the synthesis of an additional extracellular-matrix protein--type-VI collagen. We also showed that extracts of organ cultures of tissue from the rat model degraded type-I collagen into three-quarter and one-quarter-length fragments. Such enzymatic activity is characterized of mammalian collagenase, an enzyme that is known to play a critical role in the resorption of bone.

Characterization of tissue from the bone-polymethylmethacrylate interface in a rat experimental model. Demonstration of collagen-degrading activity and bone-resorbing potential.

Cloned osteoprogenitor cell from bone marrow stroma produces mineralized matrix in vitro and in vivo

We developed a rat model for the rapid and relatively simple production of tissue at a bone-cement interface. This tissue has bone-resorbing capacity, which may be responsible for the mechanical failure of posterior spinal reconstructions that employ methylmethacrylate

Characterization of tissue from the bone-polymethylmethacrylate interface in a rat experimental model: demonstration of collagen-degrading activity and bone-resorbing potential

M. R. Coe

Papers

Two cell lines from bone marrow that differ in terms of collagen synthesis, osteogenic characteristics, and matrix mineralization.

Matrix mineralization in hypertrophic chondrocyte cultures. Beta glycerophosphate increases type X collagen messenger RNA and the specific activity of pp60c-src kinase.

Characterization of tissue from the bone-polymethylmethacrylate interface in a rat experimental model. Demonstration of collagen-degrading activity and bone-resorbing potential.

Cloned osteoprogenitor cell from bone marrow stroma produces mineralized matrix in vitro and in vivo

Characterization of tissue from the bone-polymethylmethacrylate interface in a rat experimental model: demonstration of collagen-degrading activity and bone-resorbing potential