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An Introduction To The Event Related Potential Technique

Cognitive control covers a broad range of cognitive functions, but its research and theories typically remain tied to a single domain. Here we outline and review an associative learning perspective on cognitive control in which control emerges from associative networks containing perceptual, motor, and goal representations. Our review identifies 3 trending research themes that are shared between the domains of conflict adaptation, task switching, response inhibition, and attentional control: Cognitive control is context-specific, can operate in the absence of awareness, and is modulated by reward. As these research themes can be envisaged as key characteristics of learning, we propose that their joint emergence across domains is not coincidental but rather reflects a (latent) growth of interest in learning-based control. Associative learning has the potential for providing broad-scaled integration to cognitive control theory, and offers a promising avenue for understanding cognitive control as a self-regulating system without postulating an ill-defined set of homunculi. We discuss novel predictions, theoretical implications, and immediate challenges that accompany an associative learning perspective on cognitive control. (PsycINFO Database Record

Grounding cognitive control in associative learning.

The human brain is organized into large-scale functional networks that can flexibly reconfigure their connectivity patterns, supporting both rapid adaptive control and long-term learning processes. However, it has remained unclear how short-term network dynamics support the rapid transformation of instructions into fluent behaviour. Comparing fMRI data of a learning sample (N=70) with a control sample (N=67), we find that increasingly efficient task processing during short-term practice is associated with a reorganization of large-scale network interactions. Practice-related efficiency gains are facilitated by enhanced coupling between the cingulo-opercular network and the dorsal attention network. Simultaneously, short-term task automatization is accompanied by decreasing activation of the fronto-parietal network, indicating a release of high-level cognitive control, and a segregation of the default mode network from task-related networks. These findings suggest that short-term task automatization is enabled by the brain’s ability to rapidly reconfigure its large-scale network organization involving complementary integration and segregation processes. Humans can quickly learn to efficiently execute tasks yet how the brain activity is dynamically reconfigured during this process remains unknown. Here the authors demonstrate that large-scale functional brain networks are reorganized flexibly to support rapid task automation.

https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:96176/ATTACHMENT01

Integration and segregation of large-scale brain networks during short-term task automatization.

Cognitive control: Core constructs and current considerations.

Improvements in performing demanding and complex task situations are typically related to the optimization of executive functions and efficient behavioral control. The present study systematizes and reviews the optimization of different executive function types: Shifting, Inhibition, Updating, and Dual tasking. In particular, we focus on optimisations of these functions with training and on transfer effects of related training skills to non-trained situations. The aim of the study’s empirical part (see also Appendix) was to investigate the specific mechanisms of executive functions in the context of Dual tasking, leading to improved dual-task performance after practice. More specifically, we tested the Efficient Task Instantiation (ETI) model that includes specific assumptions regarding practice-related improvements of executive task coordination skills: Dual-task performance is improved with practice because of an efficient and conjoint instantiation of sets of relevant task information in working memory at the onset of a dual task. According to our knowledge, the ETI model is one of the first that allows illustrating the contribution of cognitive mechanisms underlying practice-related improvements in performing dual tasks and the impact of task coordination skills on this performance.

Practice-related optimization and transfer of executive functions: a general review and a specific realization of their mechanisms in dual tasks

Humans are characterized by an especially highly developed ability to use instructions to prepare toward upcoming events; yet, it is unclear just how powerful instructions can be. Although prior work provides evidence that instructions can be sufficiently powerful to proactively program working memory to execute stimulus–response (S-R) translations, in a reflexlike fashion (intentionbased reflexivity [IBR]), the results to date have been equivocal. To overcome this shortcoming, we developed, and tested in 4 studies, a novel paradigm (the NEXT paradigm) that isolates IBR effects even prior to first task execution. In each miniblock, participants received S-R mapping instructions for a new task. Prior to implementing this mapping, responses were required to advance through screens during a preparatory (NEXT) phase. When the NEXT response was incompatible with the instructed S-R mapping, interference (IBR effect) was observed. This NEXT compatibility effect and performance in the implementation (GO) trials barely changed when prior practice of a few trials was provided. Finally, a manipulation that encouraged preparation resulted in relatively durable NEXT compatibility effects (indicating durable preparatory efforts) coupled with improved GO performance (indicating the success of these efforts). Together, these findings establish IBR as a marker of instructed proactive control.

/pdf/the-power-of-instructions-proactive-configuration-of-11dzzjrscm.pdf

The Power of Instructions: Proactive Configuration of Stimulus-Response Translation

Task switching training effects are mediated by working-memory management

The rate of exceptionally slow reaction times (RTs), described by the long tail of the RT distribution, was found to be amplified in a variety of special populations with cognitive deficits (e.g., early-stage Alzheimer's disease, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, low intelligence, elderly). Previous individual differences studies found high correlations between working memory (WM) and parameters that characterize the magnitude of the long-RT tail. However, the causal direction remains unknown. In 3 choice-reaction task experiments, we examined this relationship by directly manipulating WM availability. In Experiment 1, the stimulus-response rules were either arbitrary (WM demanding) or nonarbitrary. In Experiment 2, the arbitrary rules were either novel (demanding) or practiced. In Experiment 3, WM was loaded with either declarative (stimulus-stimulus) or procedural (stimulus-response) arbitrary rules. Using an ex-Gaussian model fitting, we found across all experiments that WM demands uniquely influenced the τ parameter, mostly responsible for the long-RT distribution tail. Evidence accumulation modeling of the choice process indicated that WM load had little influence on the decision process itself and primarily affected the duration of an exponentially distributed nondecision component, assumed to reflect the process of rule retrieval. Theoretical interpretations and implications are discussed.

Selective influence of working memory load on exceptionally slow reaction times.

Previous behavioral and electrophysiological evidence has suggested that the instructions for a new choice task are processed even when they are not currently required, indicating intention-based reflexivity. Yet these demonstrations were found in experiments in which participants were set to execute a response (go). In the present experiment, we asked whether intention-based reflexivity would also be observed under unfavorable conditions in which participants were set not to respond (no-go). In each miniblock of our paradigm, participants received instructions for a task in which two new stimuli were mapped to right/left keys. Immediately after the instructions, a no-go phase began, which was immediately followed by a go phase. We found a significant stimulus-locked lateralized readiness potential in the first no-go trial, indicating reflexive operation of the new instructions. These results show that representing instructions in working memory provides sufficient conditions for stimuli to launch task processing, proceeding all the way until motor response-specific brain activation, which takes place even under unfavorable, no-go conditions.

Reflexive activation of newly instructed stimulus–response rules: evidence from lateralized readiness potentials in no-go trials

Several recent models of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) consider it to be a neurocognitive disorder involving inflexibility and disinhibition. Indeed, previous reviews of neuropsychological fu...

Maayan Pereg

Papers

The Power of Instructions: Proactive Configuration of Stimulus-Response Translation

Task switching training effects are mediated by working-memory management

Selective influence of working memory load on exceptionally slow reaction times.

Reflexive activation of newly instructed stimulus–response rules: evidence from lateralized readiness potentials in no-go trials

Rigidly applied rules? Revisiting inflexibility in obsessive compulsive disorder using multilevel meta-analysis.