The simulation modelling of shore- and sea-side port operations constitutes a fundamental prerequisite for effective project planning in port development, as the influence of numerous often interactive parameters has to be addressed at an early stage to account for the optimum supply of port facilities and services to current and future demand. This paper presents a detailed review of the available research literature on the application of simulation models in port development, through extensive reference to published journal papers from the onset of the relevant simulation modelling and through the course of the past 54 years (1961–2015). With focus on container terminals, this review aims at analysing the use of port related simulation models and ultimately at assessing their contribution into building the research knowledge necessary to promote sustainable ship-port interfaces and freight transport chains. It was found that over the past 50 years the use of simulation models has been increasingly favoured and instrumental in the development of ports and more specifically of container terminals. Most of the research literature addresses operational issues, accounting for its highest concentration and coherence in the research field of operations research, although the need to utilise the wide-ranging capabilities of simulation modelling in order to offer integrated solutions is recently promoting the dissemination of the relevant literature through sector-specific (i.e. transport and maritime) research fields. Finally, the observed tendency to employ simulation tools which offer the most realistic results reflects the research effort to ensure that simulation modelling offers tangible solutions to the maritime and transport industry.

Simulation modelling in ports and container terminals: literature overview and analysis by research field, application area and tool

Cold ironing is the process of providing shorepower to cover the energy demands of ships calling at ports. This technological solution can eliminate the emissions of auxiliary engines at berth, resulting in a global reduction of emissions if the grid powering the ships is an environmentally friendly energy source. This paper conducts a literature review of recent academic work in the field and presents the status of this technology worldwide and the current barriers for its further implementation. The use of cold ironing is mandatory in Californian ports for ship operators and as a result terminal and ship operators were required to invest in this technology. In Europe, all ports will be required to have cold ironing provision by the end of 2025. Other regulations that target local emissions such as Emission Control Areas can have a significant impact on whether cold ironing is used in the future as a potential compliance solution. This paper constructs a quantitative framework for the examination of the technology considering all stakeholders. The role of regulation is shown to be critical for the further adoption of this technology. Illustrative case studies are presented that consider the perspective of ship operators of various ship types, and terminal operators that opt to invest in shorepower facilities. The results of the case studies show that for medium and high fuel price scenarios there is economic motivation for ship operators to use cold ironing. For the port, the cost per abated ton of pollutants is much lower than current estimates of the external costs of pollutants. Therefore, shorepower may be a viable emissions reduction option for the maritime sector, provided that regulatory bodies assist the further adoption of the technology from ship operators and ports. The methodology can be useful to port and ship operators in examining the benefits of using cold ironing as an emissions reduction action.

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Prospects of cold ironing as an emissions reduction option

This paper presents an estimation and analysis of ship exhaust emissions and their externalities in the popular cruise destinations of Dubrovnik (Croatia) and Kotor (Montenegro) along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. To this extent, the recent record (2012–2014) of cruise ships calling at these ports is used to model and estimate the ship exhaust emission inventories and externalities within the associated bays and ports. The results indicate that cruise ship traffic produces continuously increasing air pollution in both ports over recent years. More importantly, however, the analysis of the ship operating characteristics reveals that for any given ship traffic involving specific vessels using marine fuel of a given quality, the presence of other factors (e.g. berth availability, berth accessibility etc) can also influence the ship emission levels. This is particularly evident in the case of the port of Kotor where berth space insufficiency dictates the need for ship anchorage thus leading to increased air pollution and costs of associated damage. The application and results of the aforementioned ship activity-based methodology to the ports of Dubrovnik and Kotor improves our understanding of ship emissions in cruise bays and ports, and contributes toward the implementation of port policies for the effective control of air quality in such environmentally sensitive locations.

Ship emissions and their externalities in cruise ports

Ports are experiencing increased pressure to reduce negative impacts on climate and environment, and their roles and functions in transport systems and economy make them a key factor in promoting sustainability. There is substantial research on strategies and measures for mitigating emissions and pollution. This paper reviews literature on tools and technologies for sustainable ports and presents a typology based on 70 publications published in peer-reviewed journals. The paper outlines 26 tools and technologies, across four main categories (i) port management and plans, (ii) power and fuels, (iii) sea activities and (iv) land activities. The paper further discusses to what extent existing research supports port decision makers in their effort towards sustainability. We suggest that the literature gives an insufficient foundation for decision making in ports. The main reason is that few papers are based on empirical findings. We therefore suggest several avenues for addressing port sustainability in future research to enable port decision makers to select and prioritize tools or technologies: increased use of empirical data, port engagement, and understanding actors and processes in port decision making.

Reviewing tools and technologies for sustainable ports: Does research enable decision making in ports?

In the last 30 years, environmental sustainability has been receiving increasing attention by scholars and operators. All the seaport stakeholders, including port authorities (PAs), policy-makers, port users, any port stakeholders, and local communities, must invest substantial resources to achieve high competitiveness with respect of the environment. Drawing from the extant regulations system and conducting a deep review of the main contributions on the phenomenon, this conceptual study suggests managerial accounting instruments and training, which are still under-researched, as effective measures for enforcing and encouraging green port development. This three-step study consists of a systematic review of the regulatory frameworks and literature on the phenomenon, and an outline of the gap of the legislative framework and research, from a management innovation perspective, where effective managerial practices for environmental sustainability are not successfully suggested and implemented within seaports. On the one hand, the Balanced Scorecard and Tableau de Bord are identified and proposed as managerial accounting instruments for assessing, monitoring, measuring, controlling, and reporting the organizational processes of port players, mainly PAs, for developing competitive green ports. On the other hand, training has been suggested to educate and guide the human resources at all organizational levels within seaports, for supporting and developing awareness and behavioral attitudes in the direction of environmental sustainability.

https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/3/783/pdf

Management Innovation for Environmental Sustainability in Seaports: Managerial Accounting Instruments and Training for Competitive Green Ports beyond the Regulations

This paper investigates the simulation modelling of cruise ship traffic in the Boka Kotorska Bay (BKB), which has become a very attractive cruise destination due to its geographic location, port features and attractiveness for tourism. The purpose of this paper is to examine the development of new port infrastructure, because of the increased cruise ship arrivals in recent years. The paper describes in detail the layout of the port of Kotor and the possibilities for quay extensions. The solution to minimize the number of ships at anchorage instead of being at berth is given, because the passengers of the latter ships have a more convenient approach towards the port. The simulation model is verified and the simulation results are validated against the real data prior to an investigation of the possible scenario for quay extension. The proposed solution confirms the preliminary survey results that initiated the investigation of possibilities to improve the port infrastructure. Moreover, simulation results p...

A proposed simulation-based operational policy for cruise ships in the port of Kotor

Simulation modelling of traffic in the Kotor cruise port is used for performance evaluation and optimization of the operational policy. During the summer, the traffic intensity of the cruise ships’ arrivals is higher than in other periods of the year. The increased traffic intensity causes congestion at anchorages, which can lead to significant dissatisfaction of the cruise ship operators and passengers. The simulation model, based on the port calling frequency statistics and port tariff charges, is developed. First, the simulation model is validated against the real data. Second, several simulations are performed, where the scenarios of an extended main berth and of increased traffic intensity are evaluated in order to minimize congestion and to maximize revenue. Simulation results indicate significant queue reductions and a higher revenue, thus justifying the intention in the main berth extension.

Traffic Modelling and Performance Evaluation in the Kotor Cruise Port

Optimal allocating and sizing of passenger ferry fleet in maritime transport

Thanks to the new digital technologies, advanced back-end info-communication systems of systems and fine granulation of data acquisition — media interruptions, costs and human interventions in increasingly complex transactions between physical and digital worlds are reduced. Also, the control and managerial focus is shifted from macro to micro level. In accordance with these conditions, the paper considers Internet of Things (IoT) and the accompanying concept of High Resolution Management (HRM). It also contains a review of several business models recently developed in the context of IoT and HRM.

Maja Škurić

Papers

Ship emissions and their externalities in cruise ports

A proposed simulation-based operational policy for cruise ships in the port of Kotor

Traffic Modelling and Performance Evaluation in the Kotor Cruise Port

Optimal allocating and sizing of passenger ferry fleet in maritime transport

Internet of Things, high resolution management and new business models