Cells are integral to all forms of life due to their compartmentalization by the plasma membrane. However, living organisms are immensely complex. Thus there is a need for simplified and controllable models of life for a deeper understanding of fundamental biological processes and man-made applications. This is where the bottom-up approach of synthetic biology comes from: a stepwise assembly of biomimetic functionalities ultimately into a protocell. A fundamental feature of such an endeavor is the generation and control of model membranes such as liposomes and polymersomes. We compare and contrast liposomes and polymersomes for a better a priori choice and design of vesicles and try to understand the advantages and shortcomings associated with using one or the other in many different aspects (properties, synthesis, self-assembly, applications) and which aspects have been studied and developed with each type and update the current development in the field.

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Liposomes and polymersomes: a comparative review towards cell mimicking.

Surface nanobubbles are nanoscopic gaseous domains on immersed substrates which can survive for days. They were first speculated to exist about 20 years ago, based on stepwise features in force curves between two hydrophobic surfaces, eventually leading to the first atomic force microscopy (AFM) image in 2000. While in the early years it was suspected that they may be an artifact caused by AFM, meanwhile their existence has been confirmed with various other methods, including through direct optical observation. Their existence seems to be paradoxical, as a simple classical estimate suggests that they should dissolve in microseconds, due to the large Laplace pressure inside these nanoscopic spherical-cap-shaped objects. Moreover, their contact angle (on the gas side) is much smaller than one would expect from macroscopic counterparts. This review will not only give an overview on surface nanobubbles, but also on surface nanodroplets, which are nanoscopic droplets (e.g., of oil) on (hydrophobic) substrates immersed in water, as they show similar properties and can easily be confused with surface nanobubbles and as they are produced in a similar way, namely, by a solvent exchange process, leading to local oversaturation of the water with gas or oil, respectively, and thus to nucleation. The review starts with how surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets can be made, how they can be observed (both individually and collectively), and what their properties are. Molecular dynamic simulations and theories to account for the long lifetime of the surface nanobubbles are then reported on. The crucial element contributing to the long lifetime of surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets is pinning of the three-phase contact line at chemical or geometric surface heterogeneities. The dynamical evolution of the surface nanobubbles then follows from the diffusion equation, Laplace’s equation, and Henry’s law. In particular, one obtains stable surface nanobubbles when the gas influx from the gas-oversaturated water and the outflux due to Laplace pressure balance. This is only possible for small enough surface bubbles. It is therefore the gas or oil oversaturation ζ that determines the contact angle of the surface nanobubble or nanodroplet and not the Young equation. The review also covers the potential technological relevance of surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets, namely, in flotation, in (photo)catalysis and electrolysis, in nanomaterial engineering, for transport in and out of nanofluidic devices, and for plasmonic bubbles, vapor nanobubbles, and energy conversion. Also given is a discussion on surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets in a nutshell, including theoretical predictions resulting from it and future directions. Studying the nucleation, growth, and dissolution dynamics of surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets will shed new light on the problems of contact line pinning and contact angle hysteresis on the submicron scale.

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Surface nanobubbles and nanodroplets

Biocompatibility of hydrogel-based scaffolds for tissue engineering applications

Magnetic nanoparticles for environmental and biomedical applications: A review

We present a critical review of the state of the art of magnetic particle hyperthermia (MPH) as a minimal invasive tumour therapy. Magnetic principles of heating mechanisms are discussed with respect to the optimum choice of nanoparticle properties. In particular, the relation between superparamagnetic and ferrimagnetic single domain nanoparticles is clarified in order to choose the appropriate particle size distribution and the role of particle mobility for the relaxation path is discussed. Knowledge of the effect of particle properties for achieving high specific heating power provides necessary guidelines for development of nanoparticles tailored for tumour therapy. Nanoscale heat transfer processes are discussed with respect to the achievable temperature increase in cancer cells. The need to realize a well-controlled temperature distribution in tumour tissue represents the most serious problem of MPH, at present. Visionary concepts of particle administration, in particular by means of antibody targeting, are far from clinical practice, yet. On the basis of current knowledge of treating cancer by thermal damaging, this article elucidates possibilities, prospects, and challenges for establishment of MPH as a standard medical procedure.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-4484/25/45/452001/pdf

Magnetic particle hyperthermia—a promising tumour therapy?

The polymeric ouzo effect, a nanoprecipitation process, is used for the preparation of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles. Dextran, pullulan, and starch were esterified with hydrophobic carboxylic acid anhydrides to obtain hydrophobic polysaccharides, which are insoluble in water. The additional introduction of methacroyl residues offers the possibility to cross-link the generated nanostructures, which become insoluble in organic solvents. To make use of the ouzo effect for the formation of nanoparticles, the polymer has to be soluble in an organic solvent, which is miscible with water. Here, acetone and THF were used. Immediately after the organic polymer solution is added to water, nanoparticles are generated. The size of the nanoparticles can be adjusted between 50 and 200 nm by changing the concentration of the initial polysaccharide solution. The degree of hydrophobic substitution was shown to have a very minor effect on the particle size. Dispersions with solids contents of up to 2% were obtained. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of the nanoparticles were investigated with force microscopy, and it was shown by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy that a fluorescent dye could be encapsulated in the nanoparticles by the applied nanoprecipitation procedure.

Using the polymeric ouzo effect for the preparation of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles.

Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(2-methyloxazoline) (PDMS-b-PMOXA) vesicles were characterized by a combination of dynamic light scattering (DLS), cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), and atomic force microscopy imaging and force spectroscopy (AFM). From DLS data, a hydrodynamic radius of ∼150 nm was determined, and cryo-TEM micrographs revealed a bilayer thickness of ∼16 nm. In AFM experiments on a silicon wafer substrate, adsorption led to a stable spherical caplike conformation of the polymersomes, whereas on mica, adsorption resulted also in vesicle fusion and formation of bilayer patches or multilayer stacks. This indicates a delicate balance between the mechanical stability of PDMS-b-PMOXA polymersomes on one hand and the driving forces for spreading on the other. A Young’s modulus of 17 ± 11 MPa and a bending modulus of 7 ± 5 × 10–18 J were derived from AFM force spectroscopy measurements. Therefore, the elastic response of the PDMS-b-PMOXA polymersomes to external stimuli is muc...

Mechanical properties of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(2-methyloxazoline) polymersomes probed by atomic force microscopy.

The photoactive properties of microalgae are well documented when it comes to photosynthesis and motility. But it seems their adhesion to surfaces can also be manipulated with light, which may serve to optimize their photoactive functionality. Microalgae are photoactive microbes that live in liquid-infused environments, such as soil, temporary pools and rocks, where they encounter and colonize a plethora of surfaces. Their photoactivity manifests itself in a variety of processes, including light-directed motility (phototaxis)1,2,3, the growth of microalgal populations4, and their photosynthetic machinery5. Although microbial responses to light have been widely recognized, any influence of light on cell–surface interactions remains elusive. Here, we reveal that the unspecific adhesion of microalgae to surfaces can be reversibly switched on and off by light. Using a micropipette force spectroscopy technique, we measured in vivo single-cell adhesion forces and show that the microalga’s flagella provide light-switchable adhesive contacts with the surface. This light-induced adhesion to surfaces is an active and completely reversible process that occurs on a timescale of seconds. Our results suggest that light-switchable adhesiveness is a natural functionality of microalgae to regulate the transition between the planktonic and the surface-associated state, which yields an adhesive adaptation to optimize the photosynthetic efficiency in conjunction with phototaxis.

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Adhesion of Chlamydomonas microalgae to surfaces is switchable by light

An orthogonal polymerization reaction between two monomers partitioned in the two liquid phases of a miniemulsion yielded nanocapsules with various functional groups (sulfonate, amine, carboxylic acid, and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). The formation of the nanocapsules could be realized in the presence of a self-healing agent in the liquid core. We present here the conditions for the successful preparation of functional polymer nanocapsules by free-radical polymerization as orthogonal reaction for self-healing materials. The stability of the nanocapsules was assessed by AFM measurements in the dried state as well as in water.

Efficient Encapsulation of Self-Healing Agents in Polymer Nanocontainers Functionalized by Orthogonal Reactions

The magnetic properties and hyperthermia effect were studied in solution of magnetosomes obtained by changing conditions during biomineralization of magnetotactic bacteria Magnetospirillum sp.AMB-1. It was shown that adding a higher amount of Wolfe's vitamin solution (WVS) or ferric quinate (FQ) cause increase of the mean diameter from 47 nm (normal condition) up to 52 nm and 58 nm respectively. As a consequence of this change the preparation conditions coercivity and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) increased up to 20 Oe and 949 W/gFe for sample FQ, respectively. On the other hand the process of cultivation at the changed conditions markedly reduced the cultivation time. Also the isolated chains of magnetosome were shorter containing less amount of magnetosomes too.

Marcin Makowski

Papers

Using the polymeric ouzo effect for the preparation of polysaccharide-based nanoparticles.

Mechanical properties of poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block-poly(2-methyloxazoline) polymersomes probed by atomic force microscopy.

Adhesion of Chlamydomonas microalgae to surfaces is switchable by light

Efficient Encapsulation of Self-Healing Agents in Polymer Nanocontainers Functionalized by Orthogonal Reactions

Hyperthermic Effect in Suspension of Magnetosomes Prepared by Various Methods