2 1 The innovative transport systems and the CityMobil project 10 1.1 The research questions 10 2 The state of art in the field of automatic transport systems 12 2.1 Case studies and demand studies for innovative transport systems 12 3 The design and implementation of surveys 14 3.1 Definition of experimental design 14 3.2 Questionnaire design and delivery 16 3.3 First analyses on the collected sample 18 4 Calibration of Logit Multionomial demand models 21 4.1 Methodology 21 4.2 Calibration of the “full” model. 22 4.3 Calibration of the “final” model 24 4.4 The demand analysis through the final Multinomial Logit model 25 5 The analysis of interaction between the demand and socioeconomic attributes 31 5.1 Methodology 31 5.2 Application of Mixed Logit models to the demand 31 5.3 Analysis of the interactions between demand and socioeconomic attributes through Mixed Logit models 32 5.4 Mixed Logit model and interaction between age and the demand for the CTS 38 5.5 Demand analysis with Mixed Logit model 39 6 Final analyses and conclusions 45 6.1 Comparison between the results of the analyses 45 6.2 Conclusions 48 6.3 Answers to the research questions and future developments 52

The European commission

In 1974 an article appeared in Science magazine with the dry-sounding title “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases” by a pair of psychologists who were not well known outside their discipline of decision theory. In it Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman introduced the world to Prospect Theory, which mapped out how humans actually behave when faced with decisions about gains and losses, in contrast to how economists assumed that people behave. Prospect Theory turned Economics on its head by demonstrating through a series of ingenious experiments that people are much more concerned with losses than they are with gains, and that framing a choice from one perspective or the other will result in decisions that are exactly the opposite of each other, even if the outcomes are monetarily the same. Prospect Theory led cognitive psychology in a new direction that began to uncover other human biases in thinking that are probably not learned but are part of our brain’s wiring.

Thinking fast and slow.

A growing number of information technology systems and services are being developed to change users’ attitudes or behavior or both. Despite the fact that attitudinal theories from social psychology have been quite extensively applied to the study of user intentions and behavior, these theories have been developed for predicting user acceptance of the information technology rather than for providing systematic analysis and design methods for developing persuasive software solutions. This article is conceptual and theory-creating by its nature, suggesting a framework for Persuasive Systems Design (PSD). It discusses the process of designing and evaluating persuasive systems and describes what kind of content and software functionality may be found in the final product. It also highlights seven underlying postulates behind persuasive systems and ways to analyze the persuasion context (the intent, the event, and the strategy). The article further lists 28 design principles for persuasive system content and functionality, describing example software requirements and implementations. Some of the design principles are novel. Moreover, a new categorization of these principles is proposed, consisting of the primary task, dialogue, system credibility, and social support categories.

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Persuasive Systems Design: Key Issues, Process Model, and System Features

The just-in-time adaptive intervention (JITAI) is an intervention design aiming to provide the right type/amount of support, at the right time, by adapting to an individual’s changing internal and contextual state. The availability of increasingly powerful mobile and sensing technologies underpins the use of JITAIs to support health behavior, as in such a setting an individual’s state can change rapidly, unexpectedly, and in his/her natural environment. Despite the increasing use and appeal of JITAIs, a major gap exists between the growing technological capabilities for delivering JITAIs and research on the development and evaluation of these interventions. Many JITAIs have been developed with minimal use of empirical evidence, theory, or accepted treatment guidelines. Here, we take an essential first step towards bridging this gap. Building on health behavior theories and the extant literature on JITAIs, we clarify the scientific motivation for JITAIs, define their fundamental components, and highlight design principles related to these components. Examples of JITAIs from various domains of health behavior research are used for illustration. As we enter a new era of technological capacity for delivering JITAIs, it is critical that researchers develop sophisticated and nuanced health behavior theories capable of guiding the construction of such interventions. Particular attention has to be given to better understanding the implications of providing timely and ecologically sound support for intervention adherence and retention.

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Just-in-Time Adaptive Interventions (JITAIs) in Mobile Health: Key Components and Design Principles for Ongoing Health Behavior Support

Background: Although web-based interventions for promoting health and health-related behavior can be effective, poor adherence is a common issue that needs to be addressed Technology as a means to communicate the content in web-based interventions has been neglected in research Indeed, technology is often seen as a black-box, a mere tool that has no effect or value and serves only as a vehicle to deliver intervention content In this paper we examine technology from a holistic perspective We see it as a vital and inseparable aspect of web-based interventions to help explain and understand adherence
Objective: This study aims to review the literature on web-based health interventions to investigate whether intervention characteristics and persuasive design affect adherence to a web-based intervention
Methods: We conducted a systematic review of studies into web-based health interventions Per intervention, intervention characteristics, persuasive technology elements and adherence were coded We performed a multiple regression analysis to investigate whether these variables could predict adherence
Results: We included 101 articles on 83 interventions The typical web-based intervention is meant to be used once a week, is modular in set-up, is updated once a week, lasts for 10 weeks, includes interaction with the system and a counselor and peers on the web, includes some persuasive technology elements, and about 50% of the participants adhere to the intervention Regarding persuasive technology, we see that primary task support elements are most commonly employed (mean 29 out of a possible 70) Dialogue support and social support are less commonly employed (mean 15 and 12 out of a possible 70, respectively) When comparing the interventions of the different health care areas, we find significant differences in intended usage (p = 004), setup (p < 001), updates (p < 001), frequency of interaction with a counselor (p < 001), the system (p = 003) and peers (p = 017), duration (F = 6068, p = 004), adherence (F = 4833, p = 010) and the number of primary task support elements (F = 5631, p = 005) Our final regression model explained 55% of the variance in adherence In this model, a RCT study as opposed to an observational study, increased interaction with a counselor, more frequent intended usage, more frequent updates and more extensive employment of dialogue support significantly predicted better adherence
Conclusions: Using intervention characteristics and persuasive technology elements, a substantial amount of variance in adherence can be explained Although there are differences between health care areas on intervention characteristics, health care area per se does not predict adherence Rather, the differences in technology and interaction predict adherence The results of this study can be used to make an informed decision about how to design a web-based intervention to which patients are more likely to adhere

Persuasive System Design Does Matter: A Systematic Review of Adherence to Web-Based Interventions

A growing number of information technology systems and services are being developed to change users' attitudes or behavior or both. Despite the fact that attitudinal theories from social psychology have been quite extensively applied to the study of user intentions and behavior, these theories have basically provided checklists or rules of thumb rather than systematic design methods or methodologies to develop software solutions. This article is conceptual-theoretical by its nature. It discusses the process of designing and evaluating persuasive systems and describes what kind of content and software functionality may be found at the final product. Seven underlying postulates behind persuasive systems, ways to analyze the user and the use context, and persuasive design strategies and guidelines are highlighted. Based on the works of Fogg, the article also lists techniques for persuasive system content and functionality, describing example software requirements and implementations. Some new techniques are suggested. Moreover, a new categorization of these techniques is proposed, composing of the primary task, dialogue, system credibility, and social support categories.

A Systematic Framework for Designing and Evaluating Persuasive Systems

A growing number of information technology systems and services are being developed for persuasive purposes, i.e. to change users' attitudes or behaviour or both. Despite the fact that attitudinal theories from social psychology have been quite extensively applied to the study of user intentions and behaviour, computer scientists and user interface designers are not very familiar with the theories related to attitude change. Moreover, these theories are not directly applicable for developing software and information systems. This paper builds upon the attitude change theories from social psychology recognising dimensions and approaches that help move towards a practical conceptual framework for understanding and designing persuasion in information systems.

Towards Deeper Understanding of Persuasion in Software and Information Systems

Many software applications today aim at changing the behaviors and/or attitudes of their users. Some of these persuasive systems are targeted to support healthier lifestyles through motivating exercise. Incorporating persuasive strategies into software functionality may help achieve desired changes. However, as needs for behavior change become more specialized, in-depth knowledge of how the various strategies function is needed. This article describes findings from a three-month-long qualitative field trial, exploring how a training program in a new prototype heart rate monitor promotes proper exercising. A framework for evaluating and designing persuasive systems was used to identify distinct strategies and techniques that were embedded into the system. Users' responses to these strategies were explored. The study contributes to the body of knowledge on persuasive design by: 1) demonstrating how persuasive techniques can be identified in and embedded into system functionality, and 2) adding to the understanding of how persuasive techniques function.

Understanding persuasive software functionality in practice: a field trial of polar FT60

Smartphone applications have shown promise in supporting people to adopt healthy lifestyles. Hence, it is critical to understand persuasive design strategies incorporated in native mobile applications that facilitate behavior change. The aim of our study was to identify distinct persuasive software features assimilated in twelve selected applications using Persuasive Systems Design (PSD) model and provide a methodical framework for systems developers and IS researchers to extract and evaluate such features. Further, this study aimed to provide deeper comprehension of persuasive design and strategies by learning from practice. Exhaustive evaluations were performed by four researchers specializing in persuasive information systems simulating users walking through the applications stepby-step performing regular tasks. The results disclose the need for improvement in designing and incorporating persuasive techniques in personal well-being applications. While self-monitoring and personalization were moderately exploited, tailoring, a key persuasive feature, was not identified among the evaluated applications. In addition, evaluated applications lacked features that could augment human-computer dialogue as well as social support. The contribution of this paper is twofold: while it exposes weakness in persuasive design of native mobile applications for personal wellbeing, it provides a methodical approach for enhancing general persuasiveness of such applications for instance, through enhanced dialogue support. We propose that designers and IS researchers perform rigorous evaluations of persuasive features incorporated in personal well-being applications.

Marja Harjumaa

Papers

Persuasive Systems Design: Key Issues, Process Model, and System Features

A Systematic Framework for Designing and Evaluating Persuasive Systems

Towards Deeper Understanding of Persuasion in Software and Information Systems

Understanding persuasive software functionality in practice: a field trial of polar FT60

Native Mobile Applications For Personal Well-Being: A Persuasive Systems Design Evaluation