1. Type 1 diabetes (due to b-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency) 2. Type 2 diabetes (due to a progressive insulin secretory defect on the background of insulin resistance) 3. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (diabetes diagnosed in the second or third trimester of pregnancy that is not clearly overt diabetes) 4. Specific types of diabetes due to other causes, e.g., monogenic diabetes syndromes (such as neonatal diabetes and maturity-onset diabetes of the young [MODY]), diseases of the exocrine pancreas (such as cystic fibrosis), and drugor chemical-induced diabetes (such as in the treatment of HIV/AIDS or after organ transplantation)

Classification and diagnosis of diabetes

The intent of this chapter is to enhance understanding of various dietary assessment methods so that the most appropriate method for a particular need is chosen. This review focuses only on individual level food intake assessment. It is intended to serve as a resource for those who wish to assess diet in a research study using individual measurements for group level analysis. The chapter reviews major dietary assessment methods, their advantages and disadvantages, and validity; describes which dietary assessment methods are appropriate for different types of studies and populations; and discusses specific issues that relate to all methods.

Dietary Assessment Methodology

The availability of allergen molecules ('components') from several protein families has advanced our understanding of immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated responses and enabled 'component-resolved diagnosis' (CRD). The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Molecular Allergology User's Guide (MAUG) provides comprehensive information on important allergens and describes the diagnostic options using CRD. Part A of the EAACI MAUG introduces allergen molecules, families, composition of extracts, databases, and diagnostic IgE, skin, and basophil tests. Singleplex and multiplex IgE assays with components improve both sensitivity for low-abundance allergens and analytical specificity; IgE to individual allergens can yield information on clinical risks and distinguish cross-reactivity from true primary sensitization. Part B discusses the clinical and molecular aspects of IgE-mediated allergies to foods (including nuts, seeds, legumes, fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, milk, egg, meat, fish, and shellfish), inhalants (pollen, mold spores, mites, and animal dander), and Hymenoptera venom. Diagnostic algorithms and short case histories provide useful information for the clinical workup of allergic individuals targeted for CRD. Part C covers protein families containing ubiquitous, highly cross-reactive panallergens from plant (lipid transfer proteins, polcalcins, PR-10, profilins) and animal sources (lipocalins, parvalbumins, serum albumins, tropomyosins) and explains their diagnostic and clinical utility. Part D lists 100 important allergen molecules. In conclusion, IgE-mediated reactions and allergic diseases, including allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, asthma, food reactions, and insect sting reactions, are discussed from a novel molecular perspective. The EAACI MAUG documents the rapid progression of molecular allergology from basic research to its integration into clinical practice, a quantum leap in the management of allergic patients.

EAACI Molecular Allergology User's Guide.

To analyze vitamin D status based on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) measurements, its determinants and health correlates in a representative sample of German adults. A total of 1763 men and 2267 women, 18- to 79-year old, who participated in the representative German National Health Interview and Examination Survey 1998 and the integrated German Nutrition Survey. The median vitamin D intake from both diet and supplements did not meet the recommended level of 5 μg/day, in either men (2.8 μg/day) or women (2.3 μg/day). Altogether 80.9% of men and 88.5% of women had vitamin D intakes below this level. Moderate (12.5–25 nmol/l serum 25OHD levels) and mild (25–50 nmol/l) vitamin D deficiency was prevalent in the adult population in Germany, even in younger age groups. Overall, 57% of men and 58% of women had vitamin D levels below 50 nmol/l. Among 65- to 79-year-old women, the proportion amounted to 75%, even during the sunnier half of the year. In sex-specific multiple linear regression models, independent determinants of serum 25OHD levels consistently included season, vitamin D intake from both diet and supplements, physical activity and living in a partnership. In addition, age and current menopausal hormone use contributed to the model among women, as opposed to time of day of blood sampling and body mass index (marginally) among men. Significantly lower serum 25OHD levels were observed in women with hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and noninsulin-treated diabetes mellitus as well as in men with insulin-treated diabetes mellitus compared with nonaffected participants. Vitamin D deficiency is a public health issue in Germany. We identified a number of determinants with potential for primary prevention of vitamin D deficiency. Risk and benefits of preventive actions need to be examined in further studies.

Vitamin D status and health correlates among German adults

This paper reviews studies using empirical, data-driven methodologies, such as cluster analysis and latent class analysis, to identify clustering patterns of diet, physical activity and sedentary behavior among children or adolescents and their associations with socio-demographic indicators, and overweight and obesity.

The clustering of diet, physical activity and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents: a review

The increase in overweight and obesity is a worldwide health problem. The first wave of the "German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Adults" (DEGS1), conducted from 2008 through 2011, provides current data about overweight and obesity among adults in Germany. Within DEGS1, a representative sample of the 18- to 79-year-old population was interviewed with regard to health relevant issues and physically examined (n = 7,116). From measurements of body height and weight, the body mass index (BMI) was calculated, which was used to define overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m(2)) and obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m(2)). Results are stratified for gender, age group, socioeconomic status and region and compared with results from the German National Health Interview and Examination Survey 1998 (GNHIES98) and the National Examination Surveys 1990/92. According to DEGS1, 67.1% of men and 53.0% of women are overweight. The prevalence of overweight has not changed compared to GNHIES98. The prevalence of obesity, however, has risen substantially, especially among men: in GNHIES98, 18.9% of men and 22.5% of women were obese, in DEGS1, these figures were 23.3% and 23.9%, respectively. The increase in obesity occurred especially among young adults. An English full-text version of this article is available at SpringerLink as supplemental.

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Übergewicht und Adipositas in Deutschland

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Overweight and obesity in Germany

Validation of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is important as incorrect information may lead to biased associations. Therefore the relative validity of an FFQ developed for use in the German Health Examination Survey for Adults 2008-2011 (DEGS) was examined. Cross-sectional comparisons of food consumption data from the FFQ and from two 24-hour recalls were made in a sample of 161 participants (aged 18 to 80 years) of an ongoing nationwide survey, the German National Nutrition Monitoring (NEMONIT). The data collection took place from November 2008 to April 2009. Spearman rank correlations between the FFQ and the 24-hour dietary recalls ranged from 0.15 for pizza to 0.80 for tea, with two third of the correlation coefficients exceeding 0.30. All correlation coefficients were statistically significant except those for pizza and cooked vegetables. The proportion of participants classified into the same or adjacent quartile of intake assessed by both methods varied between 68% for cooked vegetables and 94% for coffee. There were no statistically significant differences in food consumption estimates between both methods for 38% of the food groups. For the other food groups, the estimates of food consumption by the FFQ were not generally higher or lower than estimates from the 24-hour dietary recalls. The FFQ appears to be reasonably valid in the assessment of food consumption of German adults. For some food groups, such as raw and cooked vegetables, relative risks estimates should be interpreted with caution because of the poor ranking agreement.

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Relative validation of a food frequency questionnaire for national health and nutrition monitoring

Aufgrund der Zunahme von Allergien in Deutschland sind aktuelle Daten zur Pravalenz allergischer Sensibilisierungen von grosem Interesse. Im Rahmen der „Studie zur Gesundheit Erwachsener in Deutschland (DEGS1)“ (2008–2011) wurden an einer bevolkerungsbezogenen Stichprobe von 7025 18- bis 79-Jahrigen Blutproben auf spezifische IgE-Antikorper gegen 50 verbreitete Einzelallergene untersucht sowie 2 Tests mit jeweils einer Mischung aus Inhalationsallergenen (SX1) und Graserpollen (GX1) durchgefuhrt. 48,6% der Teilnehmer wiesen mindestens eine Sensibilisierung auf. Mehr Manner als Frauen waren gegen mindestens ein Allergen sensibilisiert. Zudem waren mehr jungere als altere Teilnehmer und mehr Personen mit hoherem Sozialstatus von mindestens einer Sensibilisierung betroffen. Gegen Inhalationsallergene waren 33,6% der Teilnehmer sensibilisiert, gegen Nahrungsmittelallergene 25,5% und gegen Insektengifte 22,5%. Im Vergleich zum Bundes-Gesundheitssurvey 1998 (BGS98) hat die Pravalenz einer Sensibilisierung gegen Inhalationsallergene von 29,8% auf 33,6% zugenommen. Dieser Trend war nur bei Frauen signifikant. Die Ergebnisse des DEGS1 zeigen eine nach wie vor hohe Pravalenz allergischer Sensibilisierungen.

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Prävalenz von Sensibilisierungen gegen Inhalations- und Nahrungsmittelallergene

Aims Nationally representative data on temporal changes in the prevalence of diagnosed diabetes, as well as undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes, have been lacking in Germany as in most other European countries. We aimed to fill this gap using data from nationwide examination surveys of German adults. Methods The study population comprised 18-79-year-old participants from the German Health Interview and Examination Surveys in 1997-1999 (GNHIES98, n = 6655) and 2008-2011 (DEGS1, n = 7017). Participants were classified as having diagnosed diabetes based on self-reported physician-diagnosed diabetes or the use of anti-diabetes agents. Among those without diagnosed diabetes, HbA1c measures were used to define undiagnosed diabetes [≥ 48 mmol/mol (≥ 6.5%)] or prediabetes [39-47 mmol/mol (5.7-6.4%)]. Results Although the age- and sex-standardized prevalence of total diabetes remained stable between 1997-1999 at 9.3% (95% CI 8.3-10.5%) and 2008-2011 at 9.2% (8.3-10.3%), the prevalence of diagnosed diabetes increased from 5.6% (4.9-6.3%) to 7.2% (6.5-8.0%), whereas the prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes decreased from 3.8% (3.1-4.6%) to 2.0% (1.5-2.7%), resulting in a decreased proportion of undiagnosed diabetes (40.9% vs. 21.7%). Over the same period, the prevalence of prediabetes decreased from 27.7% (25.6-29.8%) to 20.8% (18.2-23.7%). Observed temporal changes were not explained by changes in BMI, sport activity and educational level. Conclusions The two nationwide surveys indicate a shift from undiagnosed to diagnosed diabetes. However, the unchanged prevalence of total diabetes and the considerably high proportion of prediabetes strongly call for a continued and concerted effort in diabetes prevention among German adults.

Temporal changes in the prevalence of diagnosed diabetes, undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes: findings from the German Health Interview and Examination Surveys in 1997-1999 and 2008-2011

Marjolein Haftenberger

Papers

Übergewicht und Adipositas in Deutschland

Overweight and obesity in Germany

Relative validation of a food frequency questionnaire for national health and nutrition monitoring

Prävalenz von Sensibilisierungen gegen Inhalations- und Nahrungsmittelallergene

Temporal changes in the prevalence of diagnosed diabetes, undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes: findings from the German Health Interview and Examination Surveys in 1997-1999 and 2008-2011