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Fear of crime : interpreting victimization risk

Recent studies point to the potential theoretical and practical benefits of focusing police resources on crime hot spots. However, many scholars have noted that such approaches risk displacing crime or disorder to other places where programs are not in place. Although much attention has been paid to the idea of displacement, methodological problems associated with measuring it have often been overlooked. We try to fill these gaps in measurement and understanding of displacement and the related phenomenon of diffusion of crime control benefits. Our main focus is on immediate spatial displacement or diffusion of crime to areas near the targeted sites of an intervention. Do focused crime prevention efforts at places simply result in a movement of offenders to areas nearby targeted sites—“do they simply move crime around the corner”? Or, conversely, will a crime prevention effort focusing on specific places lead to improvement in areas nearby—what has come to be termed a diffusion of crime control benefits? Our data are drawn from a controlled study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey City, New Jersey. Two sites with substantial street-level crime and disorder were targeted and carefully monitored during an experimental period. Two neighboring areas were selected as “catchment areas” from which to assess immediate spatial displacement or diffusion. Intensive police interventions were applied to each target site but not to the catchment areas. More than 6,000 20-minute social observations were conducted in the target and catchment areas. They were supplemented by interviews and ethnographic field observations. Our findings indicate that, at least for crime markets involving drugs and prostitution, crime does not simply move around the corner. Indeed, this study supports the position that the most likely outcome of such focused crime prevention efforts is a diffusion of crime control benefits to nearby areas.

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Does crime just move around the corner? a controlled study of spatial displacement and diffusion of crime control benefits*

Few criticisms of situational crime-prevention (SCP) efforts are as frequent or prevalent as claims of displacement. Despite emerging evidence to the contrary, the prevailing sentiment seems to be that crime displacement is inevitable. This study examined 102 evaluations of situationally focused crime-prevention projects in an effort to determine the extent to which crime displacement was observed. The results indicate that of the 102 studies that examined (or allowed for examination of) displacement and diffusion effects, there were 574 observations. Displacement was observed in 26 percent of those observations. The opposite of displacement, diffusion of benefit, was observed in 27 percent of the observations. Moreover, the analysis of 13 studies, which allowed for assessment of overall outcomes of the prevention project while taking into account spatial displacement and diffusion effects, revealed that when spatial displacement did occur, it tended to be less than the treatment effect, suggesting that the intervention was still beneficial. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

Assessing the Extent of Crime Displacement and Diffusion of Benefits: A Review of Situational Crime Prevention Evaluations *

Thinking About Crime

This paper considers David Bayley and Clifford Shearing's (1996) argument that policing systems in developed economies are currently undergoing radical change. It is clear that a number of significant shifts have occurred including major reforms in public policing, and a substantial expansion of the private security industry. However, we question the degree to which current developments in policing should be interpreted as a sharp qualitative break with the past. By focusing primarily upon change the risk is that we overlook the significant consistencies and continuities that are equally important in understanding historical trends. We also question the extent to which the developments highlighted within this transformation thesis can be seen as global. We argue that the transformation thesis fails to take sufficient account of important differences between the nature and form of policing in North America, and of that in other countries such as Britain. We conclude by arguing that it is helpful to locate the set of changes within the framework of policing in a wider context. Thus, rather than view current developments as a fragmentation of policing, we see them as part of a long-term process of formalizaton of social control. The key development that appears to have taken place concerns shifts between what we term primary and secondary social control activities.

The Transformation of Policing? Understanding Current Trends in Policing Systems

Crime in public transport covers a bewildering variety of offenses committed in forms of transport including trams, buses, subways, commuter trains, taxis, and jitneys. The targets of crime can be the system itself (as in vandalism or fare evasion), employees (as in assaults on ticket collectors), or passengers (as in pickpocketing or overcharging). A distinction must be made between crimes facilitated by overcrowding and by lack of supervision. Both are the result of financial constraints, plaguing all forms of public transport, which result in too little space for passengers at busy periods and not enough staff to supervise vehicles and facilities at other times. Many successful measures have been reported in dealing with specific crimes. More generally, much crime can be "designed out" of new subway systems and older train and bus stations, and order maintenance may be an effective transit policing strategy. Research has been less successful in determining whether transit systems spread crime from high...

Crime and Public Transport

Managers of public transport systems seeking to maintain or increase ridership need to be aware of the security needs of passengers on their systems. A recent review, edited by Smith and Cornish (2006), of five different types of crime and disorder on public transport looked at situational crime prevention measures currently used, or proposed for use, against these offenses. The present analysis draws on this work to present a framework for analyzing the security needs of women passengers. The discussion reviews previous research in four key areas: (1) women's reported victimization, (2) issues related to calculating the risk of being a crime victim, (3) the rationality of women's fear of crime and disorder, and (4) the need for effective and comprehensive crime prevention measures to address these security-related issues. The “whole journey” approach is used to highlight aspects of the transit journey for women passengers that require special attention among transport providers, local governmental authorities (including police departments), policy makers, and researchers.

Addressing the Security Needs of Women Passengers on Public Transport

Introduction Derek B. Cornish and Martha J. Smith Classifying Common Police Problems: A Routine Activity Approach John E. Eck and Ronald V. Clarke Opportunities, Precipitators and Criminal Decisions: A Reply to Wortley's Critique of Situational Crime Prevention Derek B. Cornish and Ronald V. Clarke Situational Crime Prevention and Prison Control: Lessons for Each Other Richard Wortley Anticipating the Displacement of Crime Using the Principles of Environmental Criminology Paul J. Brantingham and Patricia L. Brantingham The Process of Co-offending Marcus Felson Crime and Innovation: A Script Analysis of Patterns in Check Forgery Julie Lacoste and Pierre Tremblay Exploring Target Attractiveness in Vandalism: An Experimental Approach Martha J. Smith The Motives, Methods and Decision Making of Convenience Store Robbers: Interviews with 28 Incarcerated Offenders in Massachusetts Anthony J. Petrosino and Diana Brensilber Measuring and Interpreting Repeat Victimization Using Police Data: An Analysis of Burglary Data and Policy for Charlotte, North Carolina Graham Farrell and Ken Pease.

Theory for Practice in Situational Crime Prevention

This chapter seeks to achieve three things, in decreasing order of importance: (1) To point out the basic phenomenon, ie, the prematurity of many crime prevention effects relative to the point at which they would occur if they were the product of their presumed mechanism This is termed anticipatory benefits (2) To trawl published literature for instances of possible and probable anticipatory benefits (3) To classify possible reasons for anticipatory benefits and to set out their implications

Martha J. Smith

Papers

Crime and Public Transport

Addressing the Security Needs of Women Passengers on Public Transport

Theory for Practice in Situational Crime Prevention

Anticipatory benefits in crime prevention

Situational Crime Prevention: Classifying Techniques Using “Good Enough” Theory