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Using Multivariate Statistics

Attachment--and loss.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/5/110/206.full.pdf

The american psychological association.

Experiences of emotion are content-rich events that emerge at the level of psychological description, but must be causally constituted by neurobiological processes. This chapter outlines an emerging scientific agenda for understanding what these experiences feel like and how they arise. We review the available answers to what is felt (i.e., the content that makes up an experience of emotion) and how neurobiological processes instantiate these properties of experience. These answers are then integrated into a broad framework that describes, in psychological terms, how the experience of emotion emerges from more basic processes. We then discuss the role of such experiences in the economy of the mind and behavior.

/pdf/the-experience-of-emotion-2a7oja10qb.pdf

The Experience of Emotion

Autonomy and agency are used extensively and often interchangeably; there is a debate regarding their intersections with relatedness and separateness. This scholarship occurs within mainly a Euro-American cultural context that provides an ideological background of individualism, shedding light on psychological thinking. The article attempts to provide a broad overview of the issues involved. Two distinct dimensions, agency and interpersonal distance, are seen to underlie the self constructs involving autonomy and relatedness that are developed in different spheres of psychological inquiry. Autonomy and relatedness are viewed as basic human needs, and though apparently conflicting, are proposed to be compatible. Problems of conceptualization and operationalization are noted that have prevented the recognition of this compatibility. A model is put forward that involves a fourfold combination of the two dimensions, leading to different types of self and the societal and familial contexts in which they develo...

Autonomy and Relatedness in Cultural Context Implications for Self and Family

Findings from research on parent-child and adult mate relationships suggest that there are different paths of development in Japan and the United States. In Japan, the path is one of symbiotic harmony, as seen in the emphasis on union in infancy, others' expectations in childhood, the stability of relationships with parents and peers in adolescence, and assurance about the mate relationship in adulthood. In the United States, the path is one of generative tension, as seen in the tug between separation and reunion in infancy, the emphasis on personal preferences in childhood, the transfer of closeness from parents to peers in adolescence, and the emphasis on trust-a faith and hope in new relationships-in adulthood. The notion that there are different paths of development challenges Western investigators' presumption that certain processes-separation-individuation, use of the relational partner as a secure base for exploration, and conflict between partners-are central in all relationships. The notion of different paths also challenges the assumption of many cross-cultural investigators that relationships in the United States are less valued or weaker than those in Japan; this article highlights cultural differences in the meaning and dynamics, as opposed to the importance and strength, of relationships. The model suggests a need to investigate the processes underlying, and the adaptive consequences of, these two alternative paths.

https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jweisz/files/2000b.pdf

The Development of Close Relationships in Japan and the United States: Paths of Symbiotic Harmony and Generative Tension

Attachment theorists maintain that cultural differences are relatively minor, and they focus on universals. Here the authors highlight evidence of cultural variations and note ways in which attachment theory is laden with Western values and meaning. Comparisons of the United States and Japan highlight the cultural relativity of 3 core hypotheses of attachment theory: that caregiver sensitivity leads to secure attachment, that secure attachment leads to later social competence, and that children who are securely attached use the primary caregiver as a secure base for exploring the external world. Attachment theorists use measures of sensitivity, competence, and secure base that are biased toward Western ways of thinking: The measures emphasize the child's autonomy, individuation, and exploration. In Japan, sensitivity, competence, and secure base are viewed very differently, calling into question the universality of fundamental tenets of attachment theory. The authors call for an indigenous approach to the psychology of attachment.

http://cfw.tufts.edu/files/rothbaum_articles/attachment%20and%20culture%20%28AP,%202000%29.pdf?origin=publication_detail

Attachment and culture. Security in the United States and Japan.

Attachment security with mothers and fathers, parental behavior, and child behavior with parents were assessed when children were ages 18-24 months, and parent and teacher reports of problem behavior were completed when the children were in the first grade, ages 6 years, 4 months to 7 years, 5 months. Findings indicated that the mother-child relationship predicted later problem behavior; the father-child relationship did not. Different patterns of association emerged for the three aspects of the mother-child relationship; attachment security predicted low total problem scores at home; maternal acceptance predicted low total problem scores at home and school; and children's sharing behavior predicted low externalizing scores at home and school. Multiple regressions indicated that attachment security, maternal acceptance, and child behavior contribute unique variance in predicting problem behavior, thereby suggesting that these aspects of the parent-child relationship, and their developmental consequences, are partly distinct from one another

Early Parent-Child Relationships and Later Problem Behavior: A Longitudinal Study.

This study examined cultural differences in the expression and meaning of physical closeness. Findings indicated that immigrant-Chinese parents, as compared with Euro-American parents, sleep in closer proximity with their children; more often view independence as children growing with the family; are more likely to emphasize the family unit; and place greater importance on inhibition of expression, adherence to correct values, and hierarchy of relations. Euro-Americans, by contrast, are more accepting of nudity; place more emphasis on psychological benefits of physical closeness and on the child's expression of wants and feelings; more often view independence as celebrating the child's distinctiveness; and place greater importance on intimacy, pleasure, and spousal exclusiveness. The authors suggest that closeness is characterized by an overarching theme of harmony in immigrant-Chinese families and by an overarching theme of romance in Euro-American families.

Immigrant-Chinese and Euro-American parents' physical closeness with young children : Themes of family relatedness

no differences between the two groups along this dimension (which is closely related to the presumed Japanese emphasis on interdependence—as compared with the presumed Western emphasis on independence—as proposed by Markus & Kitayama, 1991). The existence of such emic concepts as amae, wa, and kanjin cannot be taken as evidence that the denoted attributes are unique to Japan or more prevalent in Japan than in other countries. For example, Kashima et al. (1995) conducted a survey on the kanjin orientation (which Hamaguchi, 1985, claimed is a unique, emic category) and found that Japanese participants scored lower on this orientation than did participants from any of the four other countries surveyed. Regarding the ostensibly emic amae, it is worth noting that Doi, trained as a psychoanalyst, developed his notion of amae on the basis of Western Freudian theory. Hence, the opposition of Japan and the West becomes more difficult to uphold in this respect. Rothbaum et al.'s (2000) argument for greater attention to indigenous concepts in psychology may at first seem reasonable. However, it must be asked, indigenous to what or to whom? As Azuma (2000) noted, the term indigenous reflects a view of culture as \"circumscribed, fixed, and internally homogeneous\" (p. 9). The view of Japanese culture as internally homogeneous and externally distinctive has been widely discredited in contemporary anthropological and cultural studies (e.g., Gjerde & Onishi, 2000), and Rothbaum et al.'s references to Japanese culture and Japanese parents seem both essentialized and dated. But perhaps their most important fallacy is the failure to distinguish between cultural values and the actual lived experience of contemporary Japanese. Japanese cultural values, often ideologically tainted (Befu, 1993), may not accurately reflect the daily lived experiences of Japanese. Cultural values and subjective experience may be linked, but this linkage may not be perfect and should not be taken for granted without further investigation. As social scientists, we must not reify cultural values and mistake them for actual lived experience. For example, is amae experienced as true dependence, or is it sometimes a disingenuous or strategic behavioral expression of other attitudes or desires? We simply do not know. Until we do, an evaluation of the authors' arguments about amae and secure attachment is premature.

Martha Pott

Papers

The Development of Close Relationships in Japan and the United States: Paths of Symbiotic Harmony and Generative Tension

Attachment and culture. Security in the United States and Japan.

Early Parent-Child Relationships and Later Problem Behavior: A Longitudinal Study.

Immigrant-Chinese and Euro-American parents' physical closeness with young children : Themes of family relatedness

Deeper into attachment and culture