The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first explained, followed by a brief overview of problems in self-efficacy research. Findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and academic performances are then summarized. These findings demonstrate that particularized measures of self-efficacy that correspond to the criterial tasks with which they are compared surpass global measures in the explanation and prediction of related outcomes. The conceptual difference between the definition and use of expectancy beliefs in social cognitive theory and in expectancy value and self-concept theory is then clarified. Last, strategies to guide future research are offered.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings

The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs

SUMMARY—Amid ongoing public speculation about the reasons for sex differences in careers in science and mathematics, we present a consensus statement that is based on the best available scientific evidence. Sex differences in science and math achievement and ability are smaller for the mid-range of the abilities distribution than they are for those with the highest levels of achievement and ability. Males are more variable on most measures of quantitative and visuospatial ability, which necessarily results in more males at both high- and low-ability extremes; the reasons why males are often more variable remain elusive. Successful careers in math and science require many types of cognitive abilities. Females tend to excel in verbal abilities, with large differences between females andmalesfound whenassessmentsincludewriting samples. High-level achievement in science and math requires the ability to communicate effectively and comprehend abstract ideas, so the female advantage in writing should be helpful in all academic domains. Males outperform females on most measures of visuospatial abilities, which have been implicated as contributing to sex differences on standardized examsin mathematics and science. An evolutionary account of sex differences in mathematics and science supports the conclusion that, although sex differences in math and science performance have not directly evolved, they could be indirectly related to differences in interests and specific brain and cognitive systems. We review the brain basis for sex differences in science and mathematics, describe consistent effects, and identify numerous possible correlates. Experience alters brain structures and functioning, so causal statements about brain differences and success in math and science are circular. A wide range of sociocultural forces contribute to sex differences in mathematics and science achievement and ability—including the effects of family,neighborhood,peer,andschoolinfluences;training and experience; and cultural practices. We conclude that early experience, biological factors, educational policy, and cultural context affect the number of women and men who pursue advanced study in science and math and that these effects add and interact in complex ways. There are no single or simple answers to the complex questions about sex differences in science and mathematics.

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The Science of Sex Differences in Science and Mathematics

This study addresses the longitudinal associations between youths' out-of-school activities, expectancies-values, and high school course enrollment in the domains of math and science. Data were collected on 227 youth who reported on their activity participation in 5th grade, expectancies-values in 6th and 10th grade, and courses taken throughout high school. Math and science course grades at 5th and 10th grade were gathered through school record data. Results indicated youths' math and science activity participation predicted their expectancies and values, which, in turn, predicted the number of high school courses above the predictive power of grades. Although there were mean-level differences between boys and girls on some of these indicators, relations among indicators did not significantly differ by gender.

Math and science motivation: A longitudinal examination of the links between choices and beliefs.

This study extends research on dimensions of sexual minority experience by examining differences between bisexual and lesbian/gay adults in adaptation to sexual orientation stigma. The authors investigated sexual orientation self-disclosure, connection to community, and 4 identity-related variables (internalized homonegativity, stigma sensitivity, identity confusion, and identity superiority) in a community sample of 613 lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Sexual orientation effects were found on 3 of these 6 variables: Bisexual participants reported higher levels of identity confusion and lower levels of both self-disclosure and community connection relative to their lesbian/gay peers. Taken together, the 6 variables predicted indicators of psychosocial functioning. Associations among the 6 dimensions of sexual minority experience and psychosocial functioning did not differ for bisexual and lesbian/gay participants.

Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults.

This study was part of a longitudinal study of factors related to persistence in a science-related career. Participants (N = 173; 97 women and 76 men) were a subsample of matched participants from the 1980 and 1990 phases of data collection in the midwestern United States who in 1980, while in high school, aspired to a science, math, or technology career. By 1990, 36% of women and 46% of men had persisted in a science-related career. Structural equation model testing indicated that for women persistence was related to the number of elective high school science courses taken and that women who had higher career commitment were more likely to have switched aspirations to another career field. For men, persistence was related to their 1980 and 1990 career aspiration level and needing and obtaining financial support for college. For men these relationships also incorporated the largely indirect effects of high school science grade point average. Implications for counseling include encouraging interested adolescent girls to take elective science courses and nurturing aspiration level in adolescent boys who have science ability and are interested in a science career. In the 1970s and 1980s, the United States witnessed several changes in the opportunity structure for women that positively affected their career opportunities. Although women have increased their participation in science, math, and technology careers in the 20 or more years since educational equity legislation was passed, that participation is still well below parity (Brush, 1991; Dix, 1987; National Science Foundation, 1990). A priority for government agencies such as the National Science Foundation and the Department of Education is to increase the parity (i.e., equal participation) of women in science and technical occupations. A major purpose of the longitudinal study reported here was to identify factors related to persistence and nonpersistence in science, math, and technology careers for a group of students who aspired to a science-related career when they were originally studied in 1980 when they were 9th or 12th graders in high school. A particular focus was to identify factors related to women's persistence in these career fields. Knowledge of the factors found to relate to persistence in a science-related career should be useful to counselors in high schools and colleges in designing interventions that will lead to greater persistence of women and

Women's Career Choices: Focus on Science, Math, and Technology Careers

This article advances the understanding of workplace sexual identity management for lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals by examining three conceptual frameworks recently proposed in the organizational and psychological literature (Clair, Beatty, & MacLean, 2005; Lidderdale, Croteau, Anderson, Tovar-Murray, & Davis, 2007; Ragins, 2004, 2008). After exploring two of the models that are based in stigma theory and one that is based in social cognitive theory, the article addresses new directions for understanding and studying sexual identity in the workplace through expanding and clarifying the prior conceptual work in the three models. Specifically, directions for greater clarity in definitions of identity management are suggested, recommendations for the integration and extension of perspectives on the relationship of identity management and workplace climate are made, and the need for expanding notions of sexual identity itself is promoted.

Models of Workplace Sexual Identity Disclosure and Management: Reviewing and Extending Concepts

Prior research examining disclosure of sexual orientation at work suggests that lesbian and gay people employ diverse strategies for managing this nonvisible aspect of their identity. Yet, research concerning sexual identity management has been hampered by inadequate conceptual definition and measurement. This paper reports initial development of the Workplace Sexual Identity Management Measure (WSIMM) based on a conceptual model of lesbian and gay identity management supported by prior qualitative research. Psychometric properties of the WSIMM were examined for a sample of 172 student affairs professionals. Results suggest the WSIMM successfully assesses a continuum of identity management strategies and lend partial support for individual scales. Recommendations concerning appropriate uses and further refinement of the measure are provided.

Mary Z. Anderson

Papers

Women's Career Choices: Focus on Science, Math, and Technology Careers

Models of Workplace Sexual Identity Disclosure and Management: Reviewing and Extending Concepts

Developing an Assessment of Sexual Identity Management for Lesbian and Gay Workers

Examining the Invariance of Holland's Vocational Interest Model across Gender

Building LGB vocational psychology: A theoretical model of workplace sexual identity management